The Chapter on Medicines
Chapter One
- Palgyi Lhünpo
- Sarvajñādeva
- Vidyākaraprabha
- Dharmākara
- Paltsek
Toh 1-6
Degé Kangyur vol. 1 (’dul ba, ka), folios 277.b–311.a; vol. 2 (’dul ba, kha), folios 1.a–317.a; and vol. 3 (’dul ba, ga), folios 1.a–50.a
Translated by the Bhaiṣajyavastu Translation Team
under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha
First published 2021
Current version v 1.0.21 (2023)
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Table of Contents
Summary
The Bhaiṣajyavastu, “The Chapter on Medicines,” is a part of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya, the corpus of monastic law of one of the most influential Buddhist schools in India. This chapter deals with monastic regulations about medicines. At the same time, it also includes various elements not restricted to such rules: stories of the Buddha and his disciples, a lengthy story of the Buddha’s journey for the purpose of quelling an epidemic and converting a nāga, a number of stories of the Buddha’s former lives narrated by the Buddha himself, and a series of verses recited by the Buddha and his disciples about their former lives. Thus, this chapter preserves not only interesting information about medical knowledge shared by ancient Indian Buddhist monastics but also an abundance of Buddhist narrative literature.
Acknowledgements
This text was translated by the Bhaiṣajyavastu Translation Team. Fumi Yao translated the Tibetan text into English and prepared the ancillary materials. Shayne Clarke proofread the translation and ancillary materials.
The translation has been completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
We gratefully acknowledge the generous sponsorship of Leo Tong Chen and his family; Zhang Wei, Li Mo, Zhang Mo Tong and Zhang Mo Lin; (Chi Xian Ren) Mao Gui Rong and Chi Mei; and Joseph Tse 謝偉傑, Patricia Tse 鄒碧玲 and family, in dedication to all eczema sufferers. Their support has helped make the work on this translation possible.
Chapter One
Summary of Contents:
I. The Authorization of Medicines
The Buddha, the Blessed One, was staying in the Jetavana, in the Park of Anāthapiṇḍada. On that occasion some monks [F.278.a] caught an autumn disease. Because they had caught an autumn disease, they turned pale, became emaciated, lost their strength, and were weakened.
The buddhas, the blessed ones, ask though they already know. The Buddha, the Blessed One, asked the venerable Ānanda, “Ānanda, why have these monks turned pale, become emaciated, lost their strength, and been weakened?”
The venerable Ānanda replied, “Honored One, these monks caught an autumn disease. Because they caught an autumn disease, they have turned pale, become emaciated, lost their strength, and been weakened.”
When the Blessed One said “monks may consume medicines,” the monks consumed medicines at the appropriate time (morning)11 but did not consume them after the appropriate time, because they were monks who were in the habit of eating at the appropriate time. Therefore, the monks turned pale, became emaciated, lost their strength, and were weakened.
The buddhas, the blessed ones, ask though they already know. The Buddha, the Blessed One, asked the venerable Ānanda, “Ānanda, I said ‘monks may consume medicines.’ Why, then, have these monks turned pale, become emaciated, lost their strength, and been weakened?”
The venerable Ānanda replied, “The Blessed One said ‘monks may consume medicines,’ but they consumed medicines at the appropriate time and did not consume them after the appropriate time, because they are monks who are in the habit of eating at the appropriate time. Therefore, they turned pale, became emaciated, lost their strength, and were weakened.” [F.278.b]
“Ānanda, on account of that, I authorize monks to consume four kinds of medicines: medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time, medicines to be consumed at night, medicines to be consumed within seven days, and medicines to be consumed throughout life.12
“Among them, the medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time are manthā,13 boiled rice,14 kulmāṣa, meat, and apūpa.
“The medicines to be consumed at night are the eight kinds of drinks: coconut drink, banana drink, kola drink, aśvattha drink, udumbara drink, parūṣaka15 drink, grape drink, and kharjūra16 drink.”
A Section Index:
“Medicines to be consumed within seven days are butter oil, oil, phāṇita, honey, and śarkarā.
“Medicines to be consumed throughout life are medicines derived from roots, medicines derived from stalks, medicines derived from leaves, medicines derived from flowers, medicines derived from fruits, the five kinds of resin, the five kinds of ashes, the five kinds of salt, and the five kinds of astringents.
“Among these medicines, the medicines derived from roots are musta, vaca, turmeric, ginger, ativiṣā, and what belong to the medicines derived from roots but are not used as ingredients in a meal. The medicines derived from stalks are sandal, cavikā, padmaka, devadāru, guḍūcī, dāruharidrā, and what belong to the medicines derived from stalks but are not used as ingredients in a meal. The medicines derived from leaves are from paṭola leaves, vāśaka leaves, nimba leaves, kośātakī leaves, saptaparṇa leaves, and what belong to the medicines derived from leaves but are not used as ingredients in a meal. The medicines derived from flowers are from five kinds of flowers: vāśaka flowers, nimba flowers, dhātakī flowers, sha ta flowers, padmakesara flowers,17 [F.279.a] and what belong to the medicines derived from flowers but are not used as ingredients in a meal. The medicines derived from fruits18 are harītakī, āmalaka, vibhītaka, black pepper, long pepper, and what belong to the medicines derived from fruits but are not used as ingredients in a meal.
“Among them, hiṅgu is resin from the hiṅgu tree. Sarjarasa is resin from the sāla tree. Lac is lākṣā.19 Beeswax is siktha.20 ‘Heat medicine’ is resin from other trees.
“What are the five kinds of ashes? They are barley ash, barley-straw ash, ash from the sarjikā tree, sesame ash, and ash from the vāśakā tree.
“What are the five kinds of salt? They are salt from the Indus, brown salt, salt from Suvarcala, salt from Romaka, and salt from the ocean.
“What are the five kinds of astringents? They are āmra astringent, nimba astringent, jambū astringent, śirīṣa astringent, and kośambaka astringent.
“Medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time, medicines to be consumed at night, medicines to be consumed within seven days, and medicines to be consumed throughout life should be consumed at the appropriate time if they are mixed with medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time. In that situation, these medicines should not be consumed at an inappropriate time (afternoon or night).
“Medicines to be consumed at night, medicines to be consumed within seven days, and medicines to be consumed throughout life should be consumed during the night if they are mixed with medicines to be consumed at night.21 In that situation, these medicines should not be consumed after that night.
“Medicines to be consumed within seven days and medicines to be consumed throughout life should be consumed within seven days if they are mixed with medicines to be consumed within seven days. In that situation, these medicines should not be consumed after seven days.
“Medicines to be consumed throughout life should be consumed after someone has taken formal possession of them as medicines to be consumed throughout life. [F.279.b] Formal possession of the medicines should be taken in this manner: The monk who wishes to consume that medicine should wash his hands before he eats a meal, accept the medicine, sit down before another monk, and say, ‘Venerable One, please pay attention. I, named So-and-so (the monk says his name), take formal possession of this medicine as medicine to be consumed throughout life for myself and my fellow monks.’ He should say this a second and a third time. Formal possession of medicines to be consumed at night and medicines to be consumed within seven days should also be taken in the same manner as medicines to be consumed throughout life.”
II. Fat
A monk had a wind illness and went to a physician. The monk said, “Sir, since I have a disease like this, prescribe medicine for me.”
“Noble one,” said the physician, “consume some fat and you will recover your health.”
The monk said, “Sir, what am I? A cannibal?”
“Monk, this is your medicine,” replied the physician. “You cannot recover your health with other medicines.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “If the physician says, ‘Monk, this is your medicine. You cannot recover your health with other medicines,’ you should consume some fat.”
As the monks did not know what kind of fat they should consume, they asked the physician for advice. The physician said, “Noble ones, since your teacher is omniscient, go to him and ask.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “Five kinds of fats should be consumed. What are the five? They are fish fat, porpoise22 fat, crocodile fat, bear fat, and pig fat. But these five kinds of fats should not be consumed if they have been boiled at an inappropriate time, strained at an inappropriate time, or given at an inappropriate time, or if the monk who needs some fat has taken formal possession of the fat at an inappropriate time. [F.280.a]
“If the fats have been boiled at the appropriate time, but strained at an inappropriate time, and given at an inappropriate time, and if the monk who needs some fat has taken formal possession of the fat at an inappropriate time, they should not be consumed.
“If the fats have been boiled at the appropriate time and strained at the appropriate time, but given at an inappropriate time, and if the monk who needs some fat has taken formal possession of the fat at an inappropriate time, the fats should not be consumed.
“If the fats have been boiled at the appropriate time, strained at the appropriate time, and given at the appropriate time, but the monk who needs some fat has taken formal possession of the fat at an inappropriate time, the fats should not be consumed.23
“If the fats have been boiled at the appropriate time, strained at the appropriate time, and given at the appropriate time, and if the monk who needs some fat has taken formal possession of the fat at the appropriate time, the fats should be consumed within seven days in the same manner that you would consume oil.”
The monk then consumed the fat and his health returned. When his health returned, he threw away the remains of the fat. Later, another monk contracted the same disease, and he also went to the physician and said, “Sir, since I have a disease like this, prescribe medicine for me.”
The physician also prescribed fat for him. The second monk went to the first monk and said, “Venerable one, you consumed fat and the physician also prescribed fat for me. Are there any remains of the fat?”
“Indeed there were remains, but I threw them away,” replied the first monk.
The second monk told him, “It wasn’t good to do that.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “Monks should not throw away the remains of fat but should keep them. I will now establish rules of customary behavior for a monk who keeps fat. A monk who keeps fat should give the remains of the fat to another monk. If the first monk does not give the remains to another monk, the first monk should put the remains in the infirmary. Anyone who needs fat should take it. If a monk who keeps the remains of fat does not act in accordance with the established rules of customary behavior, he becomes guilty of an offense.”
III. Scabies
At that time, a monk had scabies. [F.280.b] He went to a physician and said, “Sir, since I have scabies, prescribe medicine for me.”
“Noble one,” said the physician, “use an astringent and you will recover your health.”
“Monk, this is your medicine,” replied the physician. “You cannot recover your health with other medicines.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “If the physician says, ‘Monk, this is your medicine. You cannot recover your health with other medicines,’ you should use an astringent.”
As the monks did not know what kind of astringent they should use, they asked the physician for advice. The physician said,25 “Since your teacher is omniscient, he himself must know.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “There are five kinds of astringents: āmra astringent, . . . .”26
When the monk kneaded the astringent and smeared it on his body, the rash spread. The Blessed One said, “You should make the astringent into a powder.”
When the monks ground the damp astringent into a powder, it became lumpy. The Blessed One said, “You should dry the astringent.”
When they dried the astringent in the sun, it lost its efficacy. The Blessed One said, “You should not dry the astringent in the sun.”
When they dried the astringent in the shade, it began to decompose. The Blessed One said, “You should dry the astringent in the shade where it is warm.”
The monk bathed after he smeared his body with the astringent, so the astringent did not work. The Blessed One said, “You should bathe after completely rubbing the astringent with your hands into your skin. If, after you bathe, you again smear the astringent and bathe, the astringent will work.”
When the monk smeared the astringent, the illness went away. He threw the remains of the astringent away. Later, another monk had the same disease, and he also went to the physician and said, “Sir, since I have a disease like this, prescribe medicine for me.”
The physician also prescribed an astringent for him. The second monk went to the first monk and said, “Venerable One, you used an astringent and the physician also prescribed an astringent for me. Are there any remains of the astringent?”
The second monk told him, “It wasn’t good to do that.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, [F.281.a] the Blessed One said, “I will now establish rules of customary behavior for a monk who keeps astringents. A monk who keeps astringents should give the remains of the astringent to another monk who needs them. If the first monk does not give the remains to another monk, he should put the remains of the astringent in the infirmary. If a monk who keeps astringents does not act in accordance with the established rules of customary behavior, he becomes guilty of an offense.”
IV. Collyrium
A monk had an eye disease and went to a physician. The monk said, “Sir, since I have an eye disease, prescribe medicine for me.”
“Noble one,” said the physician, “use collyrium and you will recover your health.”
“Monk, this is your medicine,” replied the physician. “You cannot recover your health with other medicines.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “If the physician says, ‘Monk, this is your medicine. You cannot recover your health with other medicines,’ you should use collyrium.”
As the monks did not know what kind of collyrium to use, they asked the physician for advice. The physician said, “Since your teacher is omniscient, he himself must know.”29 When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “There are five kinds of collyrium: collyrium derived from flowers, collyrium in a liquid state, collyrium in powder form, collyrium in pill form, and collyrium derived from red ocher.”30
The monk recovered his health with the collyrium. Since he left the remains of the collyrium in many different places, the remains were lost. Later, another monk had an eye disease and also went to the physician, and the physician also prescribed the same collyrium for him. The second monk went to the first monk and said, “Venerable one, I also have an eye disease. [F.281.b] Are there any remains of the collyrium?”
The first monk looked for the remains of the collyrium, but could not find them. He said, “Venerable one, indeed there were remains of the collyrium, but they have been lost because I left them in many different places.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “Monks should not leave collyrium in many different places. I will now establish rules of customary behavior for a monk who keeps collyrium. A monk who keeps collyrium should store the collyrium according to its kind. He should keep collyrium derived from flowers in a vessel, collyrium in a liquid state in a bottle, and collyrium in powder form in a tubular vessel. He should put collyrium in pill form and collyrium derived from red ocher into bags, and he should bind and hang them on a peg in the wall. If a monk who keeps collyrium does not act in accordance with the established rules of customary behavior, he becomes guilty of an offense.”31
V. A Man Gone Mad32
At that time, the venerable Saikata, his mind agitated, went mad and wandered about. Then some brahmins and householders saw him and said, “Sirs, whose son is this?”
Others replied, “The householder So-and-so’s.”
The brahmins and householders said, “If the venerable Saikata had not gone forth among the masterless śramaṇas, who are the sons of the Śākyans, his kinsmen would have cured him.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “Monks, then cure the monk Saikata, asking a physician for advice.”
The monks went to a physician and said, “Sir, since a monk has a disease like this, prescribe medicine for him.”
“Noble ones,” said the physician, “let him eat raw meat and he will recover his health.”
“Noble ones, this is his medicine. He cannot recover his health with other medicines.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “If the physician says, ‘This is his medicine. He cannot recover his health with other medicines,’ you should give him raw meat.”
The monks gave the venerable Saikata raw meat, but he could not eat the raw meat. The Blessed One said, “You should give him the meat after covering his eyes with a cloth.”
They gave the venerable Saikata raw meat and untied the cloth soon after giving him the raw meat. Then the venerable Saikata saw his hands soiled with raw meat and vomited in revulsion. The Blessed One said, “You should not untie the cloth that soon, but should untie it when you have placed a pure and fine meal before him and he has washed his hands.”
After the health of the venerable Saikata returned, he wanted to eat nothing but raw meat. When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “When you have your health back, you should act in accordance with the established discipline. If you eat raw meat, you become guilty of an offense.”
VI. Pilinda33
The venerable Pilindavatsa had always had many illnesses and pains since he had gone forth. The monks asked him, “Elder, how do you feel?”
“Venerables, I always have many illnesses and pains. I cannot bear them,” he replied.
“Elder, what did you carry with you formerly?”
He said, “I carried a medicine bag.”
“Why do you not carry it now?”
“The Blessed One has not authorized it.”
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “Monks, on account of that, I authorize monks to carry a medicine bag.” [F.282.b]
When the monks put unprocessed medicines derived from roots, flowers, stalks, and fruits into the bag, the medicines spoiled. The Blessed One said, “You should gather or bundle the medicines together and hang them on a peg.”
The medicines spoiled and the Blessed One said, “From time to time you should dry them.”
When dried in the sun, the medicines lost their efficacy. The Blessed One said, “You should not dry them in the sun.”
When dried in the shade, the medicines spoiled. The Blessed One said, “You should not dry them in the shade.”
When the monks spread the medicines out and left them, the wind and rain came, but the monks did not bring the medicines inside. The Blessed One said, “You should bring the medicines inside.”
When the Blessed One said, “You should bring the medicines inside,” the monks did not know who should bring them inside. The Blessed One said, “A layman should. If there are no laymen, a novice34 should. If there are no novices, a monk should bring the medicines inside.”
When the monks had brought the medicines inside, they did not consume them, since the medicines had become mixed together. The Blessed One said, “You should consume the medicines after separating them. You should not have any regrets about consuming such medicines. What I have authorized for illnesses should not be done in ordinary circumstances. If you do so, you become guilty of an offense.”
VII. Revata
A. Rice Flour and Guḍa
The venerable Revata used to doubt everything. Therefore, he was known by the name of “Revata the Doubter”. Early in the morning he dressed, took his robe and his bowl, and entered Śrāvastī for alms. In due course he reached the house of a guḍa35 maker. When he saw that the guḍa was being kneaded with rice flour, he said, “Sir, please don’t knead the guḍa with rice flour.”
“I do not know anything else that makes guḍa bind together, [F.283.a] but we have to eat guḍa even at inappropriate times.”
The guḍa maker said, “Noble one, whether you eat it at the appropriate time or at inappropriate times, what makes guḍa bind together is this rice flour. Other things do not work.”
Later, when the community had obtained some guḍakhādanika, the venerable Revata did not eat it. His co-resident monks and pupils said, “Master, since the community has obtained some guḍakhādanika, please eat it.”
“Sirs,” replied the venerable Revata, “it is mixed with food to be eaten only at the appropriate time.”36
They did not eat the guḍakhādanika either, and other monks said to them, “Venerables, though the community has guḍakhādanika, why do you not eat any?”
“Our teacher said, ‘This is mixed with food,’ ” replied the first monks.
They did not eat the guḍakhādanika, either. Their many followers and most of the entire community did not eat the guḍakhādanika.
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “You may eat the guḍakhādanika mixed with rice flour because it would be insubstantial as a meal and its origin is pure. You should not have any regrets about eating the guḍakhādanika.”
B. Barley Flour and Guḍa
Early in the morning the venerable Revata dressed, took his robe and his bowl, and entered Śrāvastī for alms. In due course he reached a village and saw a perfumer touch guḍa after he had touched barley flour. The venerable Revata said, “Sir, please don’t touch guḍa after you touch barley flour. We have to eat guḍa even at inappropriate times.”
“Noble one,” said the perfumer, “is there anyone to hand me water to wash my hands again and again?”
Later, the community had obtained some guḍakhādanīya,37 but the venerable Revata did not eat it. His co-resident monks and pupils said, “Master, though the community has guḍakhādanīya, why do you not eat any?”
“Sirs,” replied the venerable Revata, “this is mixed with food to be eaten only at the appropriate time.”
They [F.283.b] did not eat the guḍakhādanīya either, and other monks said to them, “Venerables, though the community has guḍakhādanīya, why do you not eat any?”
“Our teacher said, ‘This is mixed with food,’ ” the first monks replied.
They did not eat the guḍakhādanīya, either. Their many followers and most of the entire community did not eat the guḍakhādanīya.
When the monks reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “You may eat the guḍakhādanīya mixed with barley flour because it would be insubstantial as a meal and its origin is pure. You should not have any regrets about eating the guḍakhādanīya.”
VIII. Sauvīraka
The venerable Śāriputra had a wind illness and the venerable Mahāmaudgalyāyana thought, “Although I have attended to the venerable Śāriputra at my own discretion many times, I have never asked a physician for advice. Now I will ask a physician for advice.” The venerable Mahāmaudgalyāyana went to a physician and said, “Sir, since the venerable Śāriputra has a disease like this, prescribe medicine for him.”
“Noble one,” said the physician, “let him eat sauvīraka with salt, and he will recover his health.”
The venerable Mahāmaudgalyāyana found sauvīraka, but there was no salt. When he began to look for the salt, the venerable Pilindavatsa said, “Venerable Mahāmaudgalyāyana, I have a horn in which the salt is kept. I have taken formal possession of that salt as medicine to be consumed throughout life. I will give you the salt if the Blessed One authorizes it.”
The venerable Śāriputra heard this and said, “Venerable Mahāmaudgalyāyana, I thought that ‘medicines to be consumed throughout life cannot be consumed when they are mixed with medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time.’ ”
When the venerable Mahāmaudgalyāyana reported this matter to the Blessed One, the Blessed One said, “Maudgalyāyana, such medicines cannot be taken. If the four kinds of medicines—medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time, medicines to be consumed at night, medicines to be consumed within seven days, [F.284.a] and medicines to be consumed throughout life—are mixed with medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time, and if formal possession of these medicines has not been taken, these medicines should be consumed at the appropriate time, because they are mixed with medicines to be consumed at the appropriate time. These medicines should not be consumed after the appropriate time.
“If the three kinds of medicines—medicines to be consumed at night, medicines to be consumed within seven days, and medicines to be consumed throughout life—are mixed with medicines to be consumed at night, and if formal possession of these medicines has not been taken, these medicines should be consumed during the night, because they are mixed with medicines to be consumed at night. These medicines should not be consumed after that night.
“If the two kinds of medicines—medicines to be consumed within seven days and medicines to be consumed throughout life—are mixed with medicines to be consumed within seven days, these medicines should be consumed within seven days, because they are mixed with medicines to be consumed within seven days. These medicines should not be consumed after seven days.
“Medicines to be consumed throughout life may be consumed throughout life. If you consume the medicines in other ways, you become guilty of an offense.”
Abbreviations
| AA | Aṅguttaranikāya-Aṭṭhakathā. Edited by Walleser and Kopp (1924–56). |
|---|---|
| AG | Anavataptagāthā. |
| AKBh | Abhidharmakośabhāṣya. Edited by Pradhan = Pradhan 1967. |
| AKUp | Abhidharmakośopāyikā-ṭīkā. (Section numbers are based on Honjō 1984 and 2014.) |
| AN | Aṅguttaranikāya = Morris et al. 1885–1961. |
| AdhvG | Adhikaraṇavastu. Edited by Gnoli (1978). |
| Ap | Apadāna = Lilley 2000. |
| BAK | Bodhisattvāvadānakalpalatā = Chandra Das and Vidyābhūshana 1940. |
| BHSD | Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary. Vol. II Dictionary = Edgerton 1953. |
| Bhv | Bhaiṣajyavastu. |
| BhvY | Bhaiṣajyavastu. Japanese translation by Yao = Yao 2013a. |
| CPD | The Critical Pāli Dictionary = Trenckner et al. 1924–92. |
| Ch. | Chinese translation. |
| ChDas | Tibetan English Dictionary = Das 1902. |
| Crv | Carmavastu. |
| Cīv | Cīvaravastu. |
| D | Degé xylograph (scanned and published by the Buddhist Digital Resource Center). |
| DA | Dīghanikāya-Aṭṭhakathā = Rhys Davids et al. 1968–71. |
| DN | Dīghanikāya = Rhys Davids and Carpenter 1890–1911. |
| DPPN | Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names = Malalasekera 1937. |
| DhpA | Dhammapadatthakathā = Norman 1906. |
| Divy | Divyāvadāna = Cowell and Neil [1886] 1987. |
| DĀ | Dīrghāgama. |
| DĀ 35 | Ambāṣṭhasūtra. Edited by Melzer (2010a). |
| DĀc | Dīrghāgama. Chinese translation (Taishō no. 1 Chang ahan jing 長阿含經). |
| EĀc | Ekottarikāgama Chinese translation (Taishō no. 125 Zengyi ahan jing 増壹阿含經). |
| GBhv | The Bhaiṣajyavastu in the Gilgit manuscript = GMNAI i, 46–134. |
| GM | Gilgit manuscripts of the Vinayavastu edited by Dutt = Dutt 1942–50 (page numbers of Bhv, which is in part i, is referred to just with “GM,” and those of other vastus with “GM ii, iii, and iv,” with part numbers). |
| GMNAI i | Gilgit Manuscripts in the National Archives of India: Facsimile Edition vol. 1, Vinaya Texts = Clarke 2014. |
| H | Hemis manuscript. |
| J | Jātaka = Fausbøll [1877–96] 1962–64. |
| Jäschke | Tibetan English Dictionary = Jäschke 1881. |
| KA | Kaṭhināvadāna = Degener 1990. |
| Kṣv | Kṣudrakavastu. |
| MN | Majjhimanikāya = Trenckner et al. [1888–1925] 1974–79. |
| MPS | Mahāparinirvāṇa-sūtra = Waldschmidt 1950–51. |
| MSA | Mahāsudarśanāvadāna in the Gilgit manuscripts. |
| MSV | Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya. |
| MW | A Sanskrit-English Dictionary = Monier-Williams 1899. |
| MdhA | Māndhātāvadāna in the Gilgit manuscripts. |
| Merv-av | Avadāna anthology from Merv = Karashima and Vorobyova-Desyatovskaya 2015. |
| Mma | Mahāmantrānusāriṇī-sūtra = Skilling 1994–97, 608–22. |
| Mmvr | Mahāmāyūrīvidyārajñī = Takubo 1972. |
| Mv | Mahāvastu = Senart 1882–97. |
| Mvy | Mahāvyutpatti = Sakaki 1916. |
| MĀc | Madhyamāgama Chinese translation (Taishō no. 26 Zhong ahan jing 中阿含經). |
| N | Narthang xylograph. |
| NBhv | The newly identified Bhaiṣajyavastu fragments held in a private collection, Virginia, and the Schøyen Collection. |
| Negi | Tibetan–Sanskrit Dictionary = Negi 1993–2005. |
| P | Peking xylograph. |
| PLv | Pāṇḍulohitakavastu. |
| PTSD | PTS’s Pāli–English Dictionary = Rhys Davids and Stede 1921–25. |
| Ph | phug brag manuscript. |
| Prjv | Pravrajyāvastu. Translation in Miller 2018. |
| PrjvVW | Pravrajyāvastu edited by Vogel and Wille. I: Vogel and Wille 1984; II: 1992; III: 1996; IV: 2002 (all these files are now available in one pdf file online, Vogel and Wille 2014). |
| R | Ragya printed Kangyur. |
| S | Stok Palace Manuscript. |
| SHT | Sanskrithandschriften aus den Turfanfunden. |
| SN | Saṃyuttanikāya = Feer [1884–98] 1975–2006. |
| SWTF | Sanskrit-Wörterbuch der buddhistischen Texte aus den Turfan-Funden = Waldschmidt et al. 1973–2018. |
| Sbhv | Saṅghabhedavastu. |
| SbhvG | Saṅghabhedavastu. edited by Gnoli (1977–78). |
| Sh | Shey Palace manuscript. |
| Skt. | Sanskrit. |
| Sn | Suttanipāta = Andersen and Smith [1913] 1984. |
| Sumav | Sumāgadhāvadāna = Iwamoto 1979. |
| SĀc | Saṃyuktāgama Chinese translation (Taishō no. 99 Za ahan jing 雜阿含經). |
| SĀc2 | Saṃyuktāgama Chinese translation (Taishō no. 100 Bieyi za ahan jing 別譯雜阿含經). |
| SĀc3 | Saṃyuktāgama Chinese translation (Taishō no. 101 Za ahan jing 雜阿含經). |
| T | Tokyo manuscript. |
| Taishō | Taishō shinshū daizōkyō 大正新脩大藏經. 100 vols. Tokyo: Taishō Issaikyō Kankōkai 大正一切經刊行會, 1924–34. |
| TheraG | Theragāthā = Oldenberg and Pischel 1883. |
| Tib. | Tibetan translation. |
| U | Urga printed Kangyur . |
| Ud | Udāna = Steinthal 1982. |
| Ug | Uttaragrantha. |
| Uv | Udānavarga = Bernhard 1965–68, i. |
| UvTib | Udānavarga in Tibetan translation = Champa Thupten Zongtse 1990. |
| VS | Vinayasūtra transliterated by Study Group of Sanskrit Manuscripts in Tibetan dBu med Script. |
| Vin | Vinayapiṭaka in Pāli = Oldenberg [1879–83] 1982–1997. |
| Viś I | The first story of Viśvantara in the Bhv. |
| Viś II | The second story of Viśvantara in the Bhv. |
| Viś III | The story of Viśvantara in the Sbhv. |
| Viś IV | Viśvantarāvadāna in the Gilgit manuscripts. |
| Vvbh | Vinayavibhaṅga. |
| ms | Manuscript. |
| Śav | Śayanāsanavastu. |
| ŚavG | Śayanāsanavastu. Edited by Gnoli (1978). |