Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings
Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings
Toh 317
Degé Kangyur, vol. 72 (mdo sde, sa), folios 170.b–188.a
Translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee
under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha
First published 2021
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Table of Contents
Summary
The sūtra Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings begins with an introductory section, offering the context of the teachings. An explanation of twenty-seven topics is then presented by the Buddha, starting with the five aggregates and ending with the eighty minor marks of a great person. The Buddha then concludes by exhorting the bhikṣus to meditate in solitude and avoid negligence.
Acknowledgements
This text was translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the supervision of Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche. Mattia Salvini translated the text from Sanskrit and Tibetan into English and wrote the introduction. Thomas Doctor and James Gentry checked the translation against the Tibetan and edited the translation. Thankful for his profound kindness, the translators dedicate the merit of this translation to the swift reappearance of Kyabje Tsikey Chokling Rinpoche in this world.
The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.
Introduction
“Since apart from analyzing the dharmasThere is no other means to pacify mental afflictions,And since due to mental afflictions people wander in this ocean of existence,
–Vasubandhu
“The instructions found in Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings are for the purpose of analyzing the dharmas, since without the sūtras’ instructions a disciple cannot analyze the dharmas. Analyzing the dharmas is for the purpose of pacifying the afflictions; pacifying the afflictions is for the purpose of attaining the ultimate state.”2
–Vīryaśrīdatta
Vīryaśrīdatta (fl. eighth century ᴄᴇ), the Nālandā master who commented on this sūtra, explains the expression distinctly ascertaining the meanings as a synonym of analyzing the dharmas, or classifying entities, so as to see directly both their unique traits and their shared features. This analysis constitutes a path to the realization that everything produced by assemblages of causes and conditions is impermanent, that everything leading to mental defilement is suffering, and that nothing whatsoever is or has a permanent and independent self.
According to a well-established tradition, having the right view is to recognize impermanence, suffering, selflessness, and that nirvāṇa is peace. This liberating vision vanquishes the mind’s poisons of attraction, aversion, and confusion. The mind then turns toward the virtues of merit and wisdom, gradually giving way to the peace of nirvāṇa.
Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings is a step-by-step contemplation of all facets of reality and freedom from suffering. It starts with the five aggregates that constitute the common basis of defilement and purification and goes through the teachings on selflessness, the path to realize selflessness, and the higher stages of realization, and it culminates in the special features that belong exclusively to a fully awakened buddha. This invaluable archive of Buddhist terms and ideas is to be well absorbed and remembered, so as to make all other teachings easier to comprehend.
Masters of the great monasteries of ancient India such as Nālandā, Vikramaśīla, and Odantapurī are likely to have held this text in high regard as an authoritative outline of the Dharma. The sūtra’s detailed and accessible commentary, the Gathering (Nibandhana) by Vīryaśrīdatta, is a didactically subtle and comprehensive manual of Buddhist philosophy. The Gathering reproduces much of the content of Vasubandhu’s Treasury of Abhidharma (Abhidharmakośa), an unsurpassed and thorough treatise of fundamental Buddhist thought; but while Vasubandhu’s text goes into much detail with the subject matter, the Gathering offers a much more accessible presentation of the same topics.
Vīryaśrīdatta shows the purpose and structure of the sūtra, connects it to other texts, and offers convincing, cogent, and well-supported interpretations. He explains the structure of the sūtra by analyzing it into six topical elements:
1. the introductory presentation of the occasion when the sūtra was spoken (nidāna), which starts from the very beginning and goes up to the mention of the number of bhikṣus present;
2. the opening remarks by the Buddha (upodghāta), which immediately follow, in which he tells the bhikṣus that he is going to teach and they agree to pay attention;
3. the purpose of the teaching (prayojana), embedded in the very title of the sūtra, which is wisdom or, more precisely, “analysis of the dharmas” (dharmapravicaya);
4. the initial list of topics (uddeśa), which is the long list of twenty-seven topics that follows the opening remarks;
5. the explanation of the topics (nirdeśa) mentioned in the initial list, which starts right after the initial list and continues to the end of the sūtra;
6. the connection between the different expressions (anusandhi), more specifically showing how a later expression is thematically and/or logically connected to a prior one, which applies to the whole text.
The sūtra is also mentioned by Yaśomitra, the author of an extensive explanation (vyākhyā) on Vasubandhu’s Treasury of Abhidharma. Yaśomitra writes that according to “those who emphasize the sūtras” (Sautrāntika), while it is correct to say that the Buddha taught abhidharma, he did not teach separate abhidharmic treatises (as the Vaibhāṣika think); he taught the abhidharma in specific sūtras, such as Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings. As the Buddha’s own paradigmatic statement on the actual nature of reality (dharmalakṣaṇa), the sūtra can be considered an authoritative overview of insight meditation (vipaśyanā). It shares some features with another sūtra transmitted in the Sarvāstivāda tradition, The Discourse on the Twenty-Two Faculties.3
The Sanskrit text of Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings was first edited by Alfonsa Ferrari in 1944 on the basis of two incomplete manuscripts: one she describes as a “modern copy of a Nepalese manuscript from around the fourteenth century”4 in twenty-eight folios, about one third of which, she informs, contains the Nibandhana commentary, and another consisting of three folios photographed by Giuseppe Tucci in Ngor monastery in Ü-Tsang (an institution famous for its library of Sanskrit texts), which cover the first five paragraphs as per her edition. Ferrari points out that the Ngor manuscript may have been produced in Nālandā,5 and she further writes that “Professor Tucci has noted the presence of copies of the Arthaviniścaya, in Sanskrit, at Žalu and in other monasteries of Tibet.”6
A complete edition, on the basis of a Nepalese paper manuscript dated to 1858, preserved in Baroda, was published by P. L. Vaidya in 1961. Vaidya reports that, according to the postscript, the manuscript was copied from an older palm-leaf manuscript, in Newari script, from the Bir Library in Kathmandu.7 One rather striking feature of this manuscript, Vaidya reports, is that it contains the following sentence in Sanskrit, showing its awareness of Tibetan texts: “The complete information about this is found in the sūtra called Abhiniṣkramaṇa; thus it is related in the Tibetan language.”8 The anonymous Sanskritist was also a Tibetanist, it seems, or at least someone in dialogue with Tibetanists.
In 1971, N. H. Samtani offered a much-improved and complete edition, including the first edition of the Nibandhana commentary, based on the photographs taken by Rahul Sankrityayan of a palm-leaf manuscript from Ngor monastery.9 Samtani’s edition, based as it is on the photographs of the oldest-available complete manuscript, is particularly valuable, and we have used it as the primary reference for the Sanskrit. However, all the above Sanskrit versions differ, in various respects, from the Kangyur version, and the Nepalese manuscripts edited by Ferrari, although not comparably old, contain sections that match the Tibetan translation more closely. Overall, the hypothetical Sanskrit original of (almost all) the Tibetan translation can be evinced by comparing the existing Sanskrit versions and looking at parallel passages in other Sanskrit and Pāli texts. This is extremely helpful, for it can greatly clarify the intended syntax of the Tibetan and, in a few cases, show how some obscure expression may be due to a mistake (even a printing mistake) in the transmission of the Tibetan.
This English translation was prepared based on the Tibetan translation in the Degé Kangyur in consultation with the Comparative Edition (dpe bsdur ma) and the Stok Palace Kangyur. According to the Tibetan translators’ colophon, the Sanskrit text was translated into Tibetan by the Indian preceptors Jinamitra and Prajñāvarman, and the Tibetan translator Yeshé Dé. This would place the translation in the early ninth century, but it is worth noting that the translation is absent from both the Denkarma and Phangtangma inventories of Tibetan translations dated to that time. It is also worth mentioning that Jinamitra and Yeshé Dé figure among the compilers of the great Sanskrit–Tibetan lexicon the Mahāvyutpatti, which is a useful point to bear in mind when trying to understand the relationship between the Tibetan translation and the various Sanskrit versions.
The sūtra was also translated, twice, into Chinese: once by Faxian in the tenth century, and later by Jin Zong Chi in the eleventh century (Taishō 762 佛說決定義經 and Taishō 763 佛說法乘義決定經, respectively). Samtani (to whom the present translation is heavily indebted) points out that the two Chinese translations are based on a shorter and longer version, respectively, and discusses to some extent the differences between the different transmissions of this sūtra. According to De Jong, “Strictly speaking one can distinguish six different recensions: (1) the Ṅor manuscript; (2) the Nepalese manuscripts; (3) the first Chinese translation; (4) the second Chinese translation; (5) the Tibetan translation; (6) the text on which the commentary is based.”10
We could add the version commented on in the anonymous don rnam par gdon mi za ba’i ’grel pa (Arthaviniścayaṭīkā, Toh 4365), an elaborate commentary that survives only in its Tibetan translation. This commentary follows a different scheme than the one adopted by the Nibandhana. It is worth noting that the Tibetan terminology differs, to some extent, from the one employed in the Kangyur version of the sūtra. For example, the very title of the sūtra (Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings) is translated as don rnam par gdon mi za ba rather than don rnam par nges pa; this is significant, considering also that the Mahāvyutpatti has an entry rendering arthaviniścaya with don rnam par nges pa. Similarly, śrāvastī is translated as mnyan du yod pa, rather than just mnyan yod as in the Kangyur translation of the sūtra, even when the term appears as a quote of the root text. Alfonsa Ferrari described this commentary as “very long but pedestrian and attached to the letter,”11 comparing it unfavorably to the Nibandhana, which she describes as “shorter and juicier.”12 We are not sure whether this is a fair assessment, but “juicy” may be a very good way to speak of the rewards of reading Vīryaśrīdatta’s comments, some of which will be found in the notes and in the glossary, so as to offer at least glimpses of what one may be missing by not reading the Nibandhana. The Mahāvyutpatti explicitly relied on Vasubandhu’s work, and so does Vīryaśrīdatta in explaining the contents of this sūtra. His glosses thus offer some keys to the subtlety, greatness, and extraordinary dedication of the ancient translators from Sanskrit into Tibetan.
There are at least three modern translations of Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings: one in Italian by Ferrari (1944), and two in English by Samtani (1971) and Ānandajoti (2016). None of these translations represents the Kangyur version, and we furthermore differ from all three in certain matters of interpretation. We hope this translation carries at least some of the flavor of the original with its recurrent phrases and topical lists so conducive to chanting and memorization.
Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings
I bow to all buddhas and bodhisattvas.
Thus did I hear at one time.13 The Bhagavat was residing in Śrāvastī, at the eastern14 pleasance in the palace of Mṛgāra’s mother, with a great saṅgha of one thousand two hundred and fifty bhikṣus.
There, with a Brahmā voice that, like a cloud, was deep, delightful, and vast, the Bhagavat addressed the bhikṣus: “Bhikṣus, I will teach you the Dharma that is auspicious in the beginning, auspicious in the middle, and auspicious in the end,15 that has good meaning and is well expressed.16 I will clarify the unique, complete, pure, and purified Brahman conduct, the Dharma instruction Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings. [F.171.a] Listen properly and keep it firmly in your mind;17 I am going to speak.”
The Bhagavat spoke to them thus: “What, bhikṣus, is the Dharma instruction Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings? It consists of the five aggregates, the five aggregates of clinging, the eighteen bases, the twelve entrances, dependent arising with twelve parts, the four truths of the noble ones, the twenty-two faculties, the four meditations,18 the four Brahma abodes, the four courses, the four cultivations of samādhi, the four placements of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four footings of success, the five faculties, the five strengths, the seven parts of awakening, the noble path with eight parts, mindfulness of inhalation and exhalation with sixteen aspects, the four parts of entering the stream, the ten strengths of the Tathāgata, the four confidences, the four special knowledges, the eighteen dharmas exclusive to a buddha, the thirty-two marks of a great person, and the eighty minor marks. This, bhikṣus, is the list of topics for the Dharma instruction Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings.
“Now, bhikṣus, what are the five aggregates? They are the aggregate of form, the aggregate of feeling, the aggregate of notion19, the aggregate of assembled factors, and the aggregate of consciousness. These, bhikṣus, are the five aggregates.
“Now, bhikṣus, what are the five aggregates of clinging? They are the aggregate of clinging of form, the aggregate of clinging of feeling, the aggregate of clinging of notion, the aggregate of clinging of assembled factors, and the aggregate of clinging of consciousness. [F.171.b] These, bhikṣus, are the five aggregates of clinging.
“Now, bhikṣus, what are the eighteen bases? They are the eye base, form base, eye-consciousness base, ear base, sound base, ear-consciousness base, nose base, smell base, nose-consciousness base, tongue base, flavor base, tongue-consciousness base, body base, tangibles base, body-consciousness base, thought base, dharma base, and thought-consciousness base. These, bhikṣus, are explained as the eighteen bases.
“Now, bhikṣus, what are the twelve entrances? They are the internal entrance of the eye, the external entrance of form, the internal entrance of the ear, the external entrance of sound, the internal entrance of the nose, the external entrance of smell, the internal entrance of the tongue, the external entrance of flavor, the internal entrance of the body, the external entrance of tangibles, the internal entrance of thought, and the external entrance of dharmas. These, bhikṣus, are explained as the twelve entrances.
“Now, bhikṣus, what is dependent arising with twelve parts?20 It is thus: assembled factors with ignorance as their condition, consciousness with assembled factors as its condition, name-and-form with consciousness as its condition, the six entrances with name-and-form as their condition, contact with the six entrances as its condition, feeling with contact as its condition, craving with feeling as its condition, clinging with craving as its condition, existence with clinging as its condition, birth with existence as its condition, and decay, death, grief, lamentation, suffering, mental anguish, and ensuing weariness with birth as their condition come into existence. Thus is the arising, in its entirety, of what is purely a great aggregate of suffering.21 [F.172.a]
“Due to the cessation of ignorance, assembled factors cease; due to the cessation of assembled factors, consciousness ceases; due to the cessation of consciousness, name-and-form ceases; due to the cessation of name-and-form, the six entrances cease; due to the cessation of the six entrances, contact ceases; due to the cessation of contact, feeling ceases; due to the cessation of feeling, craving ceases; due to the cessation of craving, clinging ceases; due to the cessation of clinging, existence ceases; due to the cessation of existence, birth ceases; due to the cessation of birth, decay, death, grief, lamentation, suffering, mental anguish, and ensuing weariness cease. Thus is the cessation, in its entirety, of what is purely a great aggregate of suffering.
“Now, what is ignorance? It is this: nonawareness regarding the prior limit, nonawareness regarding the following limit, nonawareness regarding the prior and the following limit,22 nonawareness regarding what is internal, nonawareness regarding what is external, nonawareness regarding what is internal and what is external, nonawareness regarding karma, nonawareness regarding maturation, nonawareness regarding karma and its maturation, nonawareness regarding the karma that is a good deed, nonawareness regarding the karma that is a bad deed, nonawareness regarding the karma that is a good and bad deed,23 nonawareness regarding the cause, nonawareness regarding the result, nonawareness regarding the cause and the result, nonawareness regarding dharmas that arise due to causes, nonawareness regarding dharmas that are dependently arisen,24 nonawareness regarding the Buddha, nonawareness regarding the Dharma, nonawareness regarding the Saṅgha, nonawareness regarding suffering, nonawareness regarding its origin, nonawareness regarding cessation, nonawareness regarding the path, nonawareness regarding virtuous and nonvirtuous dharmas, nonawareness regarding blameworthy and blameless dharmas and regarding dharmas that should and should not be practiced,25 and, regarding the six contact-entrances, [F.172.b] nonawareness of the way they are,26 not seeing, not comprehending, no clear understanding, darkness, confusion, and the blinding darkness of ignorance. This is explained as ignorance.
“As for ‘assembled factors with ignorance as their condition,’ what are assembled factors? Assembled factors are of three kinds: assembled factors pertaining to the body, assembled factors pertaining to speech, and assembled factors pertaining to thought. What are the assembled factors pertaining to the body? They are inhaling and exhaling, for these are bodily dharmas,27 based on the body, and bound to the body; they come about on the basis of the body. Therefore, inhaling and exhaling are explained as the assembled factors pertaining to the body. What are the assembled factors pertaining to speech? A person speaks after deliberating and after analyzing, not without deliberating and analyzing. Therefore, deliberation and analysis are explained as assembled factors pertaining to speech. What are the assembled factors pertaining to thought? They are the intention of someone who has attraction, the intention of someone who has aversion, and the intention of someone who has confusion, for this is a mental dharma, based on the mind and bound to the mind; it occurs on the basis of the mind. Therefore, intention is explained as the assembled factor pertaining to thought. These, bhikṣus, are explained as assembled factors.28
“As for ‘consciousness with assembled factors as its condition,’ what is consciousness? It is the six collections of consciousness. What are the six? They are eye consciousness, ear consciousness, nose consciousness, tongue consciousness, body consciousness, and thought consciousness. These are the six collections of consciousness.29
“As for ‘name-and-form with consciousness as its condition,’ what is name-and-form? ‘Name’ refers to the four formless aggregates:30 the aggregate of feeling, the aggregate of notion, the aggregate of assembled factors, [F.173.a] and the aggregate of consciousness. This is name. What is form? Whatever form exists, it all consists in the four great elements and in what depends on the four great elements.31 What are the four? They are the earth element, the water element, the fire element, and the wind element. What is the earth element? It is heaviness, hardness, and roughness.32 What is the water element? It is fluidity and flow. What is the fire element? It is heat and maturation. What is the wind element? It is contraction, expansion, lightness, and motility. Such ‘form’ and the preceding ‘name’ are abbreviated as one thing, which is then called name-and-form.
“As for ‘six entrances with name-and-form as their condition,’ what are the six entrances?33 They are the entrance of the eye, the entrance of the ear, the entrance of the nose, the entrance of the tongue, the entrance of the body, and the entrance of thought. These are explained as the six entrances.
“As for ‘contact with the six entrances as its condition,’ what is contact? It is the six collections of contact. What are the six? They are eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and thought contact.34
“As for ‘feeling with contact as its condition,’ what is feeling? It is the six collections of feeling. What are the six? There is feeling born from eye contact, which is pleasant, painful, or neither painful nor pleasant. Likewise, there are also feelings born from ear, nose, tongue, body, and thought contact. Each of these may in turn be pleasant, painful, or neither painful nor pleasant.35
“As for ‘craving with feeling as its condition,’ what is craving? It is the six collections of craving. What are the six? They are craving for form, craving for sound, craving for smell, craving for flavor, craving for tangibles, and craving for dharmas.
“As for ‘clinging with craving as its condition,’ what is clinging? It is the four types of clinging. [F.173.b] What are the four? They are clinging to desire, clinging to views, clinging to discipline and vows, and clinging to the proposition of a ‘self.’
“As for ‘existence with clinging as its condition,’ what is existence? It is the three existences. What are the three? They are existence with desire, existence with form, and formless existence. What, then, is existence with desire? It is the sentient beings of the great hell called Unwavering below up to the deities in Control of Others’ Emanations. This is explained as existence with desire.36 What is existence with form? It is the deities of the Brahmā group up to the deities of Lesser than None. This is explained as existence with form.37 What is formless existence? It is the deities placed in the abode of the infinity of space up to the deities placed in the abode of neither perception nor no perception. This is explained as formless existence.38
“As for ‘birth with existence as its condition,’ what is birth? It is the birth of sentient beings in a specific class of sentient beings, and it is their descent, full birth, and coming forth, the coming into existence of the aggregates, the obtainment of the entrances, the coming into existence of the life faculty, and the fact of being brought together within a shared class. This is explained as birth.39
“As for ‘decay and death with birth as their condition,’ what is decay? It is baldness, grayness, an abundance of wrinkles, decrepitude, crookedness, being bent down like rafters; having a body that breathes in and out with wheezing sounds,40 is marred by black moles, and leans forward, supported by sticks; and the complete maturation and breaking apart of the faculties, the aging of the assembled factors, lassitude,41 dullness, slowness, loss, and all-around loss. This is explained as decay. [F.174.a]
“What is death? It is the falling away of sentient beings from a specific class of sentient beings, their movement, separation,42 impermanence,43 and death, the completion of one’s time,44 the loss of lifespan, the loss of heat, the cessation of the life faculty, and the casting away of the aggregates. This is explained as death. Such ‘death’ and the preceding ‘decay’ are abbreviated as one thing, which is then called decay and death.
“This, bhikṣus, is dependent arising with twelve parts.
“Now, what are the four truths of the noble ones? They are the noble ones’ truth of suffering, the noble ones’ truth of the arising of suffering, the noble ones’ truth of the cessation of suffering, and the noble ones’ truth of the path that leads to the cessation of suffering.
“What is the noble ones’ truth of suffering? Birth is suffering, decay is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering, separation from what one likes is suffering, conjunction with what one dislikes is suffering, and failing to obtain what one wants despite searching for it is suffering; in brief, the five aggregates of clinging are suffering. This is explained as the noble ones’ truth of suffering.
“What is the noble ones’ truth of the arising of suffering? It is craving that is conducive to a new existence and that is accompanied by rejoicing and attraction,45 furthermore delighting in this and that. This is explained as the noble ones’ truth of the arising of suffering.
“What is the noble ones’ truth of the cessation of suffering? It is the complete abandonment of, thorough relinquishment of, termination of, destruction of, nonattraction to, cessation of, pacification of, and disappearance of that very craving that is conducive to a new existence and that is accompanied by rejoicing and attraction, furthermore delighting in this and that. This is explained as the noble ones’ truth of the cessation of suffering. [F.174.b]
“What, then, is the noble ones’ truth of the path that leads to the cessation of suffering? It is the noble path with eight parts: right view, right thinking, right speech, right activity, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right samādhi. This is explained as the noble ones’ truth of the path that leads to the cessation of suffering.
“These are the four truths of the noble ones.
“Then, what are the twenty-two faculties? They are the eye faculty, the ear faculty, the nose faculty, the tongue faculty, the body faculty, the thought faculty, the male faculty, the female faculty, the life faculty, the suffering faculty, the pleasure faculty, the mental well-being faculty, the mental anguish faculty, the neutrality faculty, the faith faculty, the heroism faculty, the mindfulness faculty, the samādhi faculty, the wisdom faculty, the ‘I will completely know what I don’t yet know’ faculty, the complete-knowledge faculty, and the ‘I have completely known’ faculty. These, bhikṣus, are the twenty-two faculties.
“Now, what are the four meditations?
“Here, bhikṣus, a bhikṣu46 isolated from desires, isolated from sinful, nonvirtuous dharmas, endowed with deliberation and analysis, and having the joy and pleasure born from isolation reaches and abides in the first meditation. Due to the pacification of deliberations and analyses, due to being inwardly very well disposed, and due to the mind having a single texture, one reaches and abides in the second meditation, without deliberation or analysis and having the joy and pleasure born from samādhi. Due to nonattraction to joy, [F.175.a] one abides with equanimity, and one is mindful, discerning, and feels pleasure in one’s body. Hence, the noble ones say, ‘equanimous and mindful, he abides in pleasure.’ Thus, one reaches and abides in the third meditation, which is without joy.47 Due to the abandonment of pleasure, due to the prior abandonment of pain, and due to the disappearance of mental well-being or anguish, one reaches and abides in the fourth meditation, which is without pleasure or pain and purified in terms of equanimity and mindfulness. These, bhikṣus, are the four meditations.48
“Now, what are the four Brahma abodes? Here, bhikṣus, a bhikṣu, with (1) a mind accompanied by friendliness, a mind without enmity, antagonism, or harming, an expansive, great mind without duality, without measure, and well cultivated, becomes intent upon one direction, fills it, reaches it, and abides thus. He then does the same for the second, the third, and the fourth direction and above, below, and across; for this world on all sides and on all ends, he, with a mind accompanied by friendliness, a mind without enmity, antagonism, or harming, an expansive, great mind without duality, without measure, and well cultivated, becomes intent upon one direction, fills it, reaches it, and abides thus. In the same way, with (2) a mind accompanied by compassion, (3) a mind accompanied by rejoicing, and (4) a mind accompanied by equanimity, a mind without enmity, antagonism, or harming, an expansive, great mind without duality, without measure, and well cultivated, he becomes intent, fills, reaches, and abides thus. These are the four Brahma abodes.
“Then, what are the four courses? There is the course that is painful and that is slow in superior cognition. There is the course that is painful and that is quick in superior cognition. [F.175.b] There is the course that is pleasant and that is slow in superior cognition. There is the course that is pleasant and that is quick in superior cognition.
“Among those, what is the course that is painful and that is slow in superior cognition? Here someone has, by his very nature, intense attraction, intense aversion, and intense confusion. Due to his intense attraction, he constantly feels pain and mental anguish born of attraction; due to his intense aversion, he constantly feels pain and mental anguish born of aversion; due to his intense confusion, he constantly feels pain and mental anguish born of confusion. His five supramundane faculties are slow; they are weak and not intense, not carrying him swiftly toward the destruction of the fluxes. What are the five? They are the faith faculty, heroism faculty, mindfulness faculty, samādhi faculty, and wisdom faculty. Thus, because these five supramundane faculties are slow, weak and not intense, and do not carry him swiftly, he will only slowly reach the samādhi that immediately precedes the destruction of the fluxes. This is the course that is painful and that is slow in superior cognition.
“Among those, what is the course that is painful and that is quick in superior cognition? Here someone has, by his very nature, intense attraction, intense aversion, and intense confusion. Due to his intense attraction, he constantly feels pain and mental anguish born of attraction; due to his intense aversion, he constantly feels pain and mental anguish born of aversion; due to his intense confusion, he constantly feels pain and mental anguish born of confusion. His five supramundane faculties [F.176.a] are above measure, intense, and carry him swiftly. What are the five? They are the faith faculty, heroism faculty, mindfulness faculty, samādhi faculty, and wisdom faculty. Thus, because these five supramundane faculties are above measure, intense, and carry him swiftly, he will very quickly reach the samādhi that immediately precedes the destruction of the fluxes. This is the course that is painful and that is quick in superior cognition.
“Among those, what is the course that is pleasant and that is slow in superior cognition? Here someone has, by his very nature, little attraction, little aversion, and little confusion. Having little attraction, he does not constantly feel pain and mental anguish born of attraction; having little aversion, he does not constantly feel pain and mental anguish born of aversion; having little confusion, he does not constantly feel pain and mental anguish born of confusion. His five supramundane faculties are slow; they are weak and not intense, not carrying him swiftly toward the destruction of the fluxes. What are the five? They are the faith faculty, heroism faculty, mindfulness faculty, samādhi faculty, and wisdom faculty. Thus, because these five supramundane faculties are slow, weak and not intense, and do not carry him swiftly, he will only slowly reach the samādhi that immediately precedes the destruction of the fluxes. This is the course that is pleasant and that is slow in superior cognition.
“Among those, what is the course that is pleasant and that is quick in superior cognition? Here someone has, by his very nature, little attraction, little aversion, and little confusion. [F.176.b] Having little attraction, he does not constantly feel pain and mental anguish born of attraction; having little aversion, he does not constantly feel pain and mental anguish born of aversion; having little confusion, he does not constantly feel pain and mental anguish born of confusion. His five supramundane faculties are above measure, intense, and carry him swiftly. What are the five? They are the faith faculty, heroism faculty, mindfulness faculty, samādhi faculty, and wisdom faculty. Thus, because these five supramundane faculties are above measure, intense, and carry him swiftly, he will very quickly reach the samādhi that immediately precedes the destruction of the fluxes. This is the course that is pleasant and that is quick in superior cognition.
“These are the four courses.
“Now, what are the four cultivations of samādhi? There is, bhikṣus, a cultivation of samādhi that, once it is practiced, cultivated, and repeated, brings about the abandonment of attraction. There is a cultivation of samādhi that, once it is practiced, cultivated, and repeated, brings about a pleasant abiding in this very life. There is a cultivation of samādhi that, once it is practiced, cultivated, and repeated, brings about the obtainment of the vision of awareness. There is a cultivation of samādhi that, once it is practiced, cultivated, and repeated, brings about the obtainment of wisdom.
“Among those, what is the cultivation of samādhi that, once practiced, cultivated, and repeated, brings about the abandonment of desirous attraction?49 Here, bhikṣus, a bhikṣu, having gone to the forest, to the root of some tree, or to an empty house, observes this very body as it is,50 upwards from the soles of the feet and downwards from the hair and head, in its entirety, to be full of many types of impurities:51 [F.177.a] ‘In this body there are hairs of the head, body hairs,52 teeth, nails, dirt, filth, skin, flesh, bones, sinews, channels, kidneys, heart, lungs, liver, stomach for the raw, stomach for the ripe,53 entrails, mesentery, bladder, spleen, excrement, tears, sweat, snot, spit, grease, fluid, marrow, fat, pus, phlegm, bile, blood, head, head membrane, and urine.’ Thus, he observes it to be full of many types of impurities, as it is.54
“Just as, bhikṣus, when there is a granary with its doors open on both sides and full of many types of grains such as śāli rice, grain, barley, wheat, beans, lentils, horse gram, corn, split red lentils, mat beans, sesame, millet, and white mustard seeds,55 any person with eyes who looks at all that will know ‘This is śāli rice, this is rice, this is barley, this is wheat, these are beans, these are lentils, this is horse gram, this is corn, these are split red lentils, these are mat beans, this is sesame, this is millet, these are white mustard seeds.’56 In the same way, bhikṣus, a bhikṣu, having gone to the forest, or to the root of some tree, or to an empty house, observes this very body as it is, upwards from the soles of the feet and downwards from the hair and head, in its entirety, to be full of many types of impurities, as before up to head, head membrane, and urine.57 This, bhikṣus, is the cultivation of samādhi that, once practiced, cultivated, and repeated, brings about the abandonment of desirous attraction. [F.177.b]
“Among those, bhikṣus, what is the cultivation of samādhi that, once it is practiced, cultivated, and repeated, brings about a pleasant abiding in this very life? Here, bhikṣus, a bhikṣu, having gone to the forest, or to the root of some tree, or to an empty house, drenches wholly and thoroughly, completely fills, satiates, and suffuses this very body with the joy and pleasure born from the samādhi of isolation.58 There is no place in his body that is not filled and suffused with the joy and pleasure born from the samādhi of isolation.59 Just as, bhikṣus, water lilies, lotuses, joy lilies, or white lotuses, born in water and immersed in water, are wholly and thoroughly drenched, completely filled, satiated, and suffused by the cool water, in the very same way, bhikṣus, a bhikṣu, having gone to the forest, or to the root of some tree, or to an empty house, drenches wholly and thoroughly, completely fills, satiates, and suffuses this very body, inwardly, with the joy and pleasure born from samādhi.60 There is no place in his body that is not filled and suffused with the joy and pleasure born from samādhi.61 This is the cultivation of samādhi that, once it is practiced, cultivated, and repeated, brings about a pleasant abiding in this very life.
“Among those, bhikṣus, what is the cultivation of samādhi that, once it is practiced, cultivated, and repeated, brings about the obtainment of the vision of awareness? Here, bhikṣus, a bhikṣu has well and properly62 grasped the perception of light; [F.178.a] he has placed it well in the mind, practiced it well,63 and thoroughly penetrated it. He cultivates a mind sustained by the perception of daylight,64 with the same brightness: as by day, so by night; as by night, so by day; as in front, so behind; as behind, so in front; as below, so above; as above, so below. Thus, with an open and unbound mind, he cultivates a mind sustained by the perception of daylight, with the same brightness.65 Just as, indeed, bhikṣus, during the last month of summer, at midday on a cloudless day free of any impediment to light, everything appears very clearly, bright and luminous, and untouched by darkness, in the very same way, bhikṣus, a bhikṣu has well and properly grasped the perception of light; he has placed it well in the mind, practiced it well,66 and thoroughly penetrated it. He cultivates a mind sustained by the perception of daylight,67 with the same brightness: as by day, so by night; as by night, so by day; as in front, so behind; as behind, so in front; as below, so above; as above, so below. Thus, with an open and unbound mind sustained by the perception of daylight, he cultivates a mind with the same brightness. This is the cultivation of samādhi that, once it is practiced, cultivated, and repeated, brings about the obtainment of the vision of awareness.
“Among those, bhikṣus, what is the cultivation of samādhi that, once it is practiced, cultivated, and repeated, brings about the obtainment of wisdom? Here, bhikṣus, a bhikṣu, having gone to the forest, to the root of some tree, or to an empty house, may—due to the abandonment of pleasure, [F.178.b] the prior abandonment of pain, and the disappearance of mental well-being or anguish—reach and abide in the fourth meditation, which is without pain or pleasure and is purified in terms of equanimity and mindfulness. This is the cultivation of samādhi that, once it is practiced, cultivated, and repeated, brings about the obtainment of wisdom.
“These are the four cultivations of samādhi.
“Now, bhikṣus, what are the four placements of mindfulness? Here, bhikṣus, with respect to his own body, a bhikṣu abides contemplating the body—ardent, perfectly cognizant, mindful, and having removed coveting or mental anguish regarding the world. With respect to an outer body, with respect to his own and an outer body, with respect to his own feelings, with respect to outer feelings, with respect to his own and outer feelings, with respect to his own mind, with respect to any outer mind, with respect to his own and an outer mind, with respect to dharmas belonging to himself, with respect to outer dharmas, and with respect to dharmas belonging to himself as well as outer dharmas, he abides contemplating dharmas. These, bhikṣus, are the four placements of mindfulness.
“Now, bhikṣus, what are the four right efforts? Here, bhikṣus, a bhikṣu generates zeal, strives, brings forth heroism, takes hold of his mind, and properly sets it so as to abandon sinful, nonvirtuous dharmas that have already arisen. He generates zeal,68 strives, brings forth heroism, takes hold of his mind, and properly sets it toward the nonarising of sinful, nonvirtuous dharmas that have yet to arise. He generates zeal, strives, brings forth heroism, takes hold of his mind, and properly sets it toward the arising of virtuous dharmas that have yet to arise. [F.179.a] He generates zeal, strives, brings forth heroism, takes hold of his mind, and properly sets it toward the abiding, non-loss, non-destruction, recurrence, greatness, and fulfillment of virtuous dharmas that have already arisen. These, bhikṣus, are the four right efforts.
“Now, bhikṣus, what are the four footings of success? Here, bhikṣus, a bhikṣu, endowed with the zeal samādhi and with the factors of abandonment, cultivates the footing of success based on isolation, based on nonattraction, based on cessation, and matured by relinquishment. His own zeal is neither too absorbed nor too tightly grasped. Endowed with the heroism samādhi and with the factors of abandonment, he cultivates the footing of success based on isolation, based on nonattraction, based on cessation, and matured by relinquishment. His own heroism is neither too absorbed nor too tightly grasped. Endowed with the mind samādhi and with the factors of abandonment, he cultivates the footing of success based on isolation, based on nonattraction, based on cessation, and matured by relinquishment. His own mind is neither too absorbed nor too tightly grasped. Endowed with the investigation samādhi and with the factors of abandonment, he cultivates the footing of success based on isolation, based on nonattraction, based on cessation, and matured by relinquishment. His own investigation is neither too absorbed nor too tightly grasped. These, bhikṣus, are the four footings of success.
“Now, bhikṣus, what are the five faculties? They are [F.179.b] the faith faculty, heroism faculty, mindfulness faculty, samādhi faculty, and wisdom faculty.
“Among these, what is the faith faculty? It is that faith thanks to which one has faith in four dharmas. Which four? One has faith in the worldly right view that applies to saṃsāra. One goes for refuge in the maturation of karma. One thinks, ‘Whatever karma I perform, whether virtuous or nonvirtuous, I will experience the maturation of that karma only.’ Even for the sake of one’s own life, one does not perform sinful karma. This is explained as the faith faculty.
“Among these, what is the heroism faculty? Through the heroism faculty, one establishes those dharmas that one has faith in thanks to the faith faculty. This is explained as the heroism faculty.
“Among these, what is the mindfulness faculty? Thanks to the mindfulness faculty, one does not cause the disappearance of those dharmas that one establishes through the heroism faculty. This is explained as the mindfulness faculty.
“Among these, what is the samādhi faculty? Through the samādhi faculty, one makes one-pointed those dharmas that one does not cause to disappear thanks to the mindfulness faculty. This is explained as the samādhi faculty.
“Among these, what is the wisdom faculty? Through the wisdom faculty, one penetrates those dharmas that one makes one-pointed through the samādhi faculty; one becomes the type that carefully observes those dharmas. This is explained as the wisdom faculty.
“These, bhikṣus, are the five faculties.
“Now, bhikṣus, what are the five strengths? They are the strength of faith, the strength of heroism, the strength of mindfulness, the strength of samādhi, and the strength of wisdom. These, bhikṣus, are the five strengths. [F.180.a]
“Now, bhikṣus, what are the seven parts of awakening? They are the part of awakening of mindfulness, the part of awakening of classifying the dharmas, the part of awakening of heroism, the part of awakening of joy, the part of awakening of ease, the part of awakening of samādhi, and the part of awakening of equanimity.69 Here, bhikṣus, a bhikṣu cultivates the part of awakening of mindfulness: this is based on isolation, based on nonattraction, based on cessation, and matured by relinquishment. In the same way, he cultivates the part of awakening of classifying the dharmas: this is based on isolation, based on nonattraction, based on cessation, and matured by relinquishment. He cultivates the part of awakening of heroism: this is based on isolation, based on nonattraction, based on cessation, and matured by relinquishment. He cultivates the part of awakening of joy: this is based on isolation, based on nonattraction, based on cessation, and matured by relinquishment. He cultivates the part of awakening of ease: this is based on isolation, based on nonattraction, based on cessation, and matured by relinquishment. He cultivates the part of awakening of samādhi: this is based on isolation, based on nonattraction, based on cessation, and matured by relinquishment. He cultivates the part of awakening of equanimity: this is based on isolation, based on nonattraction, based on cessation, and matured by relinquishment. These, bhikṣus, are the seven parts of awakening.
“Now, bhikṣus, what is the noble path with eight parts? It is right view, right thinking, right speech, right activity, right livelihood, [F.180.b] right effort, right mindfulness, and right samādhi. This, bhikṣus, is the noble path with eight parts.
“Among these, what is right view? It is supramundane; arisen from the view of no-self; not arisen from the view of a sentient being, of a living being, of a nourishing being, of a man, of a person, of a descendant of Manu, or of a human being; not arisen from the view of cutting off or eternality; not arisen from the view of existence or nonexistence; not arisen from the view of the virtuous, nonvirtuous, or undetermined; and not arisen from the view of saṃsāra or nirvāṇa. This is called right view.
“Among these, what is right thought? One does not think those thoughts due to which the afflictions of desire, aversion, and confusion rise up. One thinks those thoughts due to which the aggregates of discipline, samādhi, wisdom, liberation,70 and the vision of awareness of liberation rise up. This is called right thought.71
“Among these, what is right speech? One is endowed with the speech through which one does not torment oneself or others, one does not afflict oneself or others, and one does not do wrong to oneself or others, the speech that is conducive to what the noble ones find fit, with expressions of samādhi and joy. This is called right speech.72
“Among these, what is right activity? One does not perform karma that is black and has black maturation. One performs karma that is white and has white maturation. [F.181.a] One does not perform karma that occurs as white-black and occurs having white-black maturation. One performs karma that is conducive to the destruction of the black and what occurs having black, non-white maturation. One has good karma as refuge; one has good activity. This is called right activity.
“Among those, what is right livelihood? When, in accordance with the noble lineage, one does not abandon the good qualities of purification and does not abandon frugality; when one does not engage in hypocrisy, chatter, or extortion; when one is in the habit of behaving heroically; when one has no envy at others’ gain and is content with one’s own gain; and when one has a blameless livelihood that is approved by the noble ones, this is called right livelihood.
“Among those, what is right effort? One does not endeavor in the effort that is wrong, due to which attraction, aversion, and confusion insidiously grow. One follows the effort that enters into the truth73 of the right path of the noble ones, the effort that bestows the path that leads to nirvāṇa. This is called right effort.74
“Among those, what is right mindfulness? It is well placed, unshakeable, upright,75 is not crooked, and rightly sees the flaws of saṃsāra76 as being misery; it is the mindfulness that guides on the path to nirvāṇa;77 and it means not to forget the path of the noble ones. This is called right mindfulness.78
“Among those, what is right samādhi? It is the samādhi that is even79 in the sense that it is right.80 [F.181.b] It is the samādhi abiding in which one steps into the right certainty of steadfastness toward the liberation of all sentient beings. This is called right samādhi.81
1. “Mindful82 as one breathes in, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Mindful, I am breathing in.’ Mindful as one breathes out, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Mindful, I am breathing out.’
2. “Breathing in a long breath, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘I am breathing in a long breath.’ Breathing out a long breath, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘I am breathing out a long breath.’
3. “Breathing in a short breath, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘I am breathing in a short breath.’ Breathing out a short breath, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘I am breathing out a short breath.’
4. “Experiencing the assembled factors of the body as one breathes in, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Experiencing the assembled factors of the body, [F.182.a] I am breathing in.’ Experiencing the assembled factors of the body as one breathes out, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Experiencing the assembled factors of the body, I am breathing out.’
5. “Experiencing the entirety of the body as one breathes in, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Experiencing the entirety of the body, I am breathing in.’ Experiencing the entirety of the body as one breathes out, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Experiencing the entirety of the body, I am breathing out.’
6. “Experiencing all the assembled factors of the body as one breathes in, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Experiencing all the assembled factors of the body, I am breathing in.’ Experiencing all the assembled factors of the body as one breathes out, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Experiencing all the assembled factors of the body, I am breathing out.’
7. “Placing at ease the assembled factors of the body as one breathes in, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Placing at ease the assembled factors of the body, I am breathing in.’ Placing at ease the assembled factors of the body as one breathes out, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Placing at ease the assembled factors of the body, I am breathing out.’
8. “Experiencing joy as one breathes in, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Experiencing joy, I am breathing in.’ Experiencing joy as one breathes out, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Experiencing joy, I am breathing out.’
9. “Experiencing pleasure as one breathes in, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Experiencing pleasure, I am breathing in.’ Experiencing pleasure as one breathes out, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Experiencing pleasure, I am breathing out.’
10. “Experiencing the mind as one breathes in, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Experiencing the mind, I am breathing in.’ Experiencing the mind as one breathes out, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Experiencing the mind, I am breathing out.’
11. “Experiencing the assembled factors of the mind as one breathes in, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Experiencing the assembled factors of the mind, I am breathing in.’ Experiencing the assembled factors of the mind as one breathes out, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Experiencing the assembled factors of the mind, I am breathing out.’ [F.182.b]
12. “Placing at ease the assembled factors of the mind as one breathes in, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Placing at ease the assembled factors of the mind, I am breathing in.’ Placing at ease the assembled factors of the mind as one breathes out, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Placing at ease the assembled factors of the mind, I am breathing out.’
13. “Gladdening one’s mind as one breathes in,83 one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Gladdening the mind, I am breathing in.’ Gladdening one’s mind as one breathes out, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Gladdening the mind, I am breathing out.’
14. “Liberating one’s mind as one breathes in, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Liberating the mind, I am breathing in.’ Liberating one’s mind as one breathes out, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Liberating the mind, I am breathing out.’
15. “Concentrating one’s mind as one breathes in, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Concentrating the mind, I am breathing in.’ Concentrating one’s mind as one breathes out, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Concentrating the mind, I am breathing out.’
16. “In the same way, having insight into impermanence, having insight into nonattraction, having insight into cessation, and having insight into letting go, as one breathes in, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Having insight into letting go, I am breathing in.’ [F.183.a] Having insight into letting go, as one breathes out, one is perfectly aware, as it is, that ‘Having insight into letting go, I am breathing out.’
“Now,84 what are the four parts of entering the stream? Here,85 a noble śrāvaka is intelligently well disposed toward the Buddha, thinking, ‘Thus indeed is the Bhagavat: he is the tathāgata, arhat, perfect and complete Buddha, endowed with knowledge and feet, the Sugata, the knower of the world, the unexcelled charioteer of persons to be tamed, the teacher of gods and humans, the Buddha, the Bhagavat.’
“He is intelligently well disposed toward the Dharma, thinking, ‘The Dharma of the Bhagavat86 has been well spoken, it is to be seen for oneself, it is free from fever, it is timeless, it is a guide, and it is to be seen here, to be experienced by the wise for themselves. It is the abolition of conceit, the removal of thirst,87 the destruction of the dwelling, the cutting off of the continuum of the path,88 and the destruction of craving; it is nonattraction, cessation, nirvāṇa.’
“He is intelligently well disposed toward the Saṅgha, thinking, ‘The Saṅgha of śrāvakas of the Bhagavat practices well, as they practice in the proper way, they practice upright,89 they practice suitably, they practice the Dharma that accords with the Dharma,90 and they act in accordance with the Dharma.
“In the Saṅgha, there are those practicing to directly realize the result of entering the stream. [F.183.b] In the Saṅgha, there are the stream enterers. In the Saṅgha, there are those who practice to directly realize the result of the once-returners. In the Saṅgha, there are the once-returners. In the Saṅgha, there are those who practice to directly realize the result of the non-returners. In the Saṅgha, there are the non-returners. In the Saṅgha, there are those who practice to directly realize the result of arhathood. In the Saṅgha, there are the arhats: there are the four pairs of persons, or eight types of persons. The Bhagavat’s Saṅgha of śrāvakas is endowed with faith, endowed with discipline, endowed with aural learning, endowed with samādhi, endowed with wisdom,91 endowed with liberation, and endowed with the vision of awareness of liberation. It is worthy of oblations, and it is worthy of higher oblations. One should fold one’s hands in front of it and act properly toward it; it is the unexcelled field of merit, worthy of the offerings of the world.
“He is endowed with the types of discipline that are highly valued by the noble ones. And as for those types of discipline, they are unimpaired, unbroken, whole, unadulterated, unalloyed, not violated, well completed,92 praised by the wise, and not reproached by the wise. These93 are the four parts of entering the stream.
“Now, bhikṣus, what are the ten strengths of the Tathāgata?
1. “Here, bhikṣus, the Tathāgata perfectly cognizes, as it is, what is the case as being the case, and what is not the case as not being the case. This is the first strength of the Tathāgata.94
2. “He perfectly cognizes, as it is, the taking up and maturation of different types of karma in the past, future, and present. [F.184.a]
3. “He perfectly cognizes, as they are, the different, manifold inclinations of other sentient beings.95
4. “He perfectly cognizes, as they are, the many, varied basic natures of the world.
5. “He perfectly cognizes, as they are, the higher and lower faculties of other sentient beings.
6. “He perfectly cognizes, as they are, the paths that reach everywhere.
7. “He perfectly cognizes, as it is, the condition of either defilement or purification in other sentient beings’96 faculties, strengths, parts of awakening, meditations, liberations, samādhis, and attainments.
8. “He97 remembers many previous lives, including their specific aspects, locations, and causes. He remembers one life; he remembers two, three, four, and even up to many hundreds of thousands of millions of crores of lives, and so forth.
9. “With his divine eye98 that is pure and beyond that of humans he sees sentient beings as they are born, as they are born in good or bad destinations according to the good or bad deeds of their body, speech, and mind, and so forth.
10. “Through his wisdom he perfectly cognizes, as it is, the mind’s liberation without fluxes, which comes from the destruction of the fluxes.
“These, bhikṣus, are the ten strengths of the Tathāgata.
“Now, what are the four confidences of the Tathāgata?
1. “In this world, the Bhagavat acknowledges himself as the perfect, complete Buddha.99 If in this world with its gods, māras, and brahmas, [F.184.b] or among the beings including the śramaṇas, brahmins, gods, humans, and asuras, someone were to tell him ‘You have not realized these dharmas,’ he would see no ground for their statement. Not seeing any ground for it, the Tathāgata abides at ease and fearless. He knows well his place as supreme. When in the assembly, he rightly100 roars the lion’s roar. He turns the Brahma wheel, not turned in the world by any śramaṇa or brahmin or by anyone else, in accordance with the Dharma.
2. “As for those dharmas that he declared to be obstacles, if someone were to tell him that ‘For someone who practices them, they are not obstacles,’ it would then be as above.101
3. “Moreover,102 as for the path that he declared to be noble and leading to the final exit, if someone were to say that ‘For someone who practices it, it is not the final exit that brings the right destruction of suffering for someone who enacts it,’ it would then be as above.103
4. “He is one whose fluxes are destroyed, and he acknowledges himself to be so: thus, if in this world with its gods, māras, brahmas, or among the beings including the śramaṇas, brahmins, gods, humans, and asuras, someone were to say that ‘These fluxes of yours are not destroyed,’ he would see no ground for that statement. Not seeing any ground for it, the Tathāgata abides at ease and fearless. He knows well his place as supreme. When in the assembly, he rightly104 roars the lion’s roar. He turns the Brahma wheel, not turned in the world by any śramaṇa or brahmin or by anyone else, in accordance with the Dharma.
“These are the four confidences.
“Then, what are the Tathāgata’s four special knowledges? [F.185.a] They are the special knowledge of meaning, the special knowledge of dharmas, the special knowledge of explanations, and the special knowledge of brilliancy.105 These are the four special knowledges.
“Then, what are the eighteen dharmas exclusive to a buddha?106
“(1) For a tathāgata, there is no error; (2) there is no yelling; (3) there is no forgetfulness; (4) there is no unconcentrated mind; (5) there is no perception of difference; (6) there is no indifference due to lack of discrimination; (7) there is no loss of zeal; (8) there is no loss of heroism; (9) there is no loss of mindfulness; (10) there is no loss of samādhi; (11) there is no loss of wisdom; (12a) there is no loss of liberation; (12b) there is no loss in the vision of awareness of liberation;107 (13) with respect to the past, his vision of awareness is neither stuck nor obstructed; (14) with respect to the future, his vision of awareness is neither stuck nor obstructed; (15) with respect to the present, his vision of awareness is neither stuck nor obstructed; (16) all his bodily activities are preceded by awareness and follow awareness; (17) all his verbal activities are preceded by awareness and follow awareness; and (18) all his mental activities are preceded by awareness and follow awareness. These are the eighteen dharmas exclusive to a buddha.
“Then, what are the Tathāgata’s thirty-two marks of a great person?108
2. “The two soles of his feet are marked by a wheel.
3. “He has broad heels and prominent ankles.
4. “He has long fingers.
5. “His hands and feet are webbed.
6. “His hands and feet are soft and tender. [F.185.b]
7. “There are seven elevations on his body.
9. “His secret organ is retracted within a sheath.
10. “The upper half of his body is like a lion’s.
11. “The space between the shoulders is broad.
12. “He has evenly rounded shoulders.
13. “His arms stretch to the knees when he does not bend down.111
14. “His body is pure.
15. “His neck is like a conch.
16. “He has a lion’s jaw.
17. “He has forty even teeth.
18. “His teeth are even and have no interstices.
19. “He has very white teeth.
20. “He has a long tongue.
21. “Any flavor for him tastes supreme.
22. “His melodious voice is like the melodious voice of Brahmā and like the kalaviṅka’s note.
23. “He has intensely blue eyes.
24. “His eyelashes are like those of a cow.
25. “He has fine skin.
26. “He has golden skin.
27. “He has one hair for each pore.
28. “Each bodily hair points upward and turns to the right.
29. “The hair on his head is like sapphire.
30. “He has a very white ūrṇā on his forehead, the part of the face between the brows.
32. “He has the mark of a great person that consists in his body’s girth being like a banyan tree and all-around pleasant.
“These are the thirty-two marks of a great person.
1. “He has well-placed feet: this mark of a great person has come about because in the past the Tathāgata, the great person, pursued his undertakings with a firm resolve.
2. “The two soles of his feet are marked by a wheel: this mark of a great person has come about because in the past the Tathāgata, the great person, accumulated manifold acts of generosity.
3. “He has broad heels and prominent ankles: this mark of a great person has come about because in the past the Tathāgata, the great person, did not intimidate other sentient beings.
4. “He has long fingers: this mark of a great person has come about because in the past the Tathāgata, the great person, protected, sheltered, and guarded the Dharma for sentient beings. [F.186.a]
5. “His hands and feet are webbed: this mark of a great person has come about because in the past the Tathāgata, the great person, did not break up others’ retinues.112
6. “His hands and feet are soft and tender: this mark of a great person has come about because in the past the Tathāgata, the great person, offered many types of fine garments.
7. “There are seven elevations on his body: this mark of a great person has come about because in the past the Tathāgata, the great person, offered large quantities of food and drink.
8. “He has antelope shanks: this mark of a great person has come about because in the past the Tathāgata, the great person, embraced the Buddhadharma.
9. “His secret organ is placed within a sheath: this mark of a great person has come about because in the past the Tathāgata, the great person, guarded the secret mantras, and because he gave up the copulation dharma.
10. “The upper half of his body is like a lion’s: this mark of a great person has come about because in the past the Tathāgata, the great person, conducted himself in accordance with virtuous karma.
11. “The space between the shoulders is broad: this mark of a great person has come about because in the past the Tathāgata, the great person, practiced virtuous dharmas.
12. “He has evenly rounded shoulders: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata offered fearlessness and solace to others.113
13. “His arms stretch to the knees when he does not bend down:114 this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata was eager to perform tasks for others.115
14. “His body is pure: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata was never satisfied with the extent to which he undertook the paths of the ten virtuous karmas.
15. “His neck is like a conch: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata offered many types of medicines to the sick. [F.186.b]
16. “He has a lion’s jaw: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata fulfilled the practice of the roots of virtue.
17. “He has forty even teeth: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata acted evenly toward all sentient beings.116
18. “His teeth have no interstices:117 this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata united sentient beings who were divided.
19. “He has very white teeth: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata offered beautiful gifts. He has even teeth: this is because he guarded well the karmas of body, speech, and mind.
20. “He has a long tongue: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata guarded the truthfulness of his speech.
21. “Any flavor for him tastes supreme: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata attended to merit beyond measure and made offerings to others.118
22. “His melodious voice is like the melodious voice of Brahmā and like the kalaviṅka’s note: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata spoke gentle words to sentient beings,119 and because he proclaimed speech that gives joy.
23. “He has intensely blue eyes: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata protected sentient beings with friendliness.
24. “His eyelashes are like those of a cow: this has come about because in the past he120 kept an uncontrived disposition.
25. “He has fine skin: this has come about because in the past he became adept at perfectly chanting and collecting the Dharma.121
26. “He has golden skin: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata offered beds, seats, mats, and attractive garments.
27. “He has one hair for each pore: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata avoided crowds.
28. “Each bodily hair points upward and turns to the right: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata seized with courteous dexterity122 the instructions of his ācāryas, upādhyāyas, and good friends.
29. “The hair on his head is like sapphire: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata had compassion for the lives of sentient beings,123 and because he laid aside stones, sticks, and blades. [F.187.a]
30. “He has a very white ūrṇā on his forehead, the part of the face between the brows: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata praised those worthy of praise.
31. “He bears the uṣṇīṣa on his head: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata showed reverence to his gurus.
32. “His body’s124 girth is like a banyan tree: this has come about because in the past the Tathāgata enjoined himself and others toward samādhi.
“That his body has the all-around pleasantness of Mahānārāyaṇa has come about because in the past he made images of the tathāgatas, repaired broken stūpas, and consoled others when they were scared.125 Thanks to roots of virtue beyond measure, he attained mastery in respect to these dharmas, and thus the thirty-two marks of a great person have come forth on the Tathāgata’s body.
“What are the eighty minor marks?
1. “The buddhas, the bhagavats, have nails the color of copper,
2. “glossy nails,
3. “prominent nails,
4. “even lines on their palms,126
5. “round fingers,127
6. “plump fingers,
7. “regularly shaped fingers,
8. “hidden channels,
9. “channels without knots,
10. “hidden ankles,128
11. “and level feet;
12. “the buddhas move with a lion-like gait;
13. “they move with an elephant-like gait;
14. “they move with a geese-like gait;
15. “they move with a bull-like gait;
16. “they move circling to the right;129
17. “they move elegantly;130
19. “they have rounded bodies,
20. “smooth bodies,
21. “and regularly shaped bodies;
22. “their bodies132 are wide and elegant;
23. “they are complete in their marks; [F.187.b]
24. “they take even steps;
25. “they have clean bodies,
26. “soft bodies,
27. “pure bodies,
28. “unimpaired bodies,
29. “broad bodies,
30. “very firm bodies,
31. “and well-proportioned bodies;
32. “their vision is free from defects and clear;
33. “they have round bellies,
34. “clean bellies,133
35. “bellies without defects,
36. “slender stomachs,
37. “deep navels,
38. “and navels that turn to the right;
39. “they are all-around pleasant;
40. “they conduct themselves in a pure manner;
41. “their bodies have no freckles or moles;
42. “they have soft hands like cotton wool,
43. “glossy lines in the palms,
44. “deep lines in the palms,
45. “and long lines in the palms;
46. “their faces are not too long;
47. “their faces reflect forms;
49. “soft tongues,
50. “red tongues,
51. “voices like an elephant’s roar or like the sound of thunder,
52. “voices that are pleasing and beautiful,135
53. “round cuspids,
54. “sharp cuspids,
55. “white136 and level cuspids,
56. “regular cuspids,
57. “prominent noses,
58. “clean noses,
59. “wide eyes,
60. “elongated eyes,
61. “and thick eyelashes;
62. “the white and black parts of their eyes are wide137 and beautiful like the petals of a blue lotus;
64. “they have long eyebrows,
65. “smooth eyebrows,
66. “eyebrows with even hair,
67. “glossy eyebrows,
68. “full, long ears,
69. “level ears,
70. “unimpaired ear faculties,
71. “well-shaped foreheads,
72. “wide foreheads,
73. “perfect heads,
75. “thick hair,
76. “smooth hair,
78. “hair that is not rough,
79. “and fragrant hair; [F.188.a]
80. “and the buddhas, the bhagavats, have marks like the śrīvatsa, the svastika, the nandyāvarta, the wheel, the vajra, the lotus, the fish, and so forth on the palms of their hands and on the soles of their feet.
“These are the eighty minor marks.
“I had said, ‘Bhikṣus, I will teach you the Dharma that is auspicious in the beginning, auspicious in the middle, auspicious in the end, that has good meaning and is well expressed. I will clarify the unique, complete, pure, and purified Brahman conduct, the Dharma instruction Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings.’ Thus, I have now explained what I had said I would.
“Bhikṣus, dwell in forests, under trees, in empty dwellings, in mountain glens and rocky caves, in heaps of straw, in spaces out in the open, in charnel grounds, in forest glades, or in border regions. Meditate with certainty. Bhikṣus, if you become careless, you will regret it later. This is my instruction.”
As this Dharma instruction was being delivered, the minds of five hundred bhikṣus were liberated from the fluxes of clinging.
Thus spoke the Bhagavat. With their minds delighted, the bhikṣus, that entire assembly, and the world with its gods, humans, asuras, and gandharvas rejoiced at what the Bhagavat had said.
This completes the Dharma instruction “Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings.”
Colophon
This was translated, edited, and finalized by the Indian upādhyāyas Jinamitra and Prajñāvarman, and the chief editor-translator Bandé Yeshé Dé.141
Notes
Bibliography
Tibetan Sources
don rnam par nges pa zhes bya ba’i chos kyi rnam grangs (Arthaviniścayanāmadharmaparyāya). Toh 317, Degé Kangyur vol. 72 (mdo sde, sa), folios 170.b–188.a.
don rnam par nges pa zhes bya ba’i chos kyi rnam grangs (Arthaviniścayanāmadharmaparyāya). Stok no. 70, Stok Palace Kangyur vol. 58 (mdo sde, ja), folios 405.a–428.a.
don rnam par nges pa zhes bya ba’i chos kyi rnam grangs. bka’ ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center). 108 volumes. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), 2006–2009, vol. 72, pp. 490–534.
don rnam par gdon mi za ba’i ’grel pa (Arthaviniścayaṭīkā). Toh 4365, Degé Tengyur vol. 207 (sna tshogs, nyo), folios 1.b–192.a.
dge ’dun gyi dbyen gyi gzhi (Saṅghabhedavastu). Toh 1, ch. 17. Degé Kangyur vol. 3 (’dul ba, ga), folios 255.b–293.a; vol. 4 (’dul ba, nga), folios 1.b–302.a.
’phags pa shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa rdo rje gcod pa zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo (Āryavajracchedikānāmaprajñāpāramitāmahāyānasūtra). Toh 16, Degé Kangyur vol. 34 (shes rab sna tshogs, ka), folios 121.a–132.b.
’phags pa ’od srungs kyi le’u zhes bya ba theg pa chen po’i mdo (Āryakāśyapaparivartanāmamahāyānasūtra). Toh 87, Degé Kangyur vol. 44 (dkon brtsegs, cha), folios 199.b–151.b.
ched du brjod pa’i tshoms (Udānavarga). Toh 326, Degé Kangyur vol. 72 (mdo sde, sa), folios 209.a–253.a.
kye’i rdo rje zhes bya ba rgyud kyi rgyal po (Hevajratantrarājanāma). Toh 417, Degé Kangyur vol. 80 (rgyud, nga), folios 1.b–13.b.
’phags pa ’jam dpal gyi rtsa ba’i rgyud (Āryamañjuśrīmūlakalpa). Toh 543, Degé Kangyur vol. 88 (rgyud, na), folios 105.a–351.a. English translation in Dharmachakra Translation Committee 2020.
Āryaśūra. pha rol tu phyin pa bsdus pa (Pāramitāsamāsa). Toh 3944, Degé Tengyur vol. 111 (dbu ma, khi), folios 217.b–235.a.
Asaṅga. chos mngon pa kun las btus pa (Abhidharmasamuccaya). Toh 4049, Degé Tengyur vol. 134 (sems tsam, ri), folios 1.b–120.b.
Candrakīrti. gsum la skyabs su ’gro ba bdun cu pa (Triśaraṇagamanasaptati). Toh 3971, Degé Tengyur vol. 112 (dbu ma, gi), folios 251.a–253.b; Toh 4564, Degé Tengyur vol. 213 (jo bo’i chos chung), folios 202.a–204.b.
Dignāga. shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin ma bsdus pa’i tshig le’ur byas pa (Āryaprajñāpāramitāsaṃgrahakārikā). Toh 3809, Degé Tengyur vol. 93 (shes phyin, pha), folios 292.b–294.b.
———. tshad ma kun las btus pa (Pramāṇasamuccaya). Toh 4203, Degé Tengyur vol. 174 (tshad ma, ce), folios 1.b–13.a.
Haribhadra. shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa’i bshad pa mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan gyi snang ba (Āryāṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāvyākhyābhisamayālaṃkarālokā). Toh 3791, Degé Tengyur vol. 85 (shes phyin, cha), folios 1.b–341.a.
———. shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa’i man ngag gi bstan bcos mngon par rtogs pa’i rgyan zhes bya ba’i ’grel pa (Abhisamayālaṃkāranāmaprajñāpāramitopadeśaśāstravṛtti). Toh 3793, Degé Tengyur vol. 86 (shes phyin, ja), folios 78.b–140.a.
Nagārjuna. dbu ma rtsa ba’i tshig le’ur byas pa shes rab (Prajñānāmamūlamadhyamakakārikā). Toh 3824, Degé Tengyur vol. 96 (dbu ma, tsa), folios 1.b–19.a.
Prajñākaramati. byang chub kyi spyod pa la ’jug pa’i dka’ ’grel (Bodhicaryāvatārapañjikā). Toh 3872, Degé Tengyur vol. 105 (dbu ma, la), folios 41.b–288.a.
Sthiramati. sum cu pa’i bshad pa (Triṃśikābhāṣya). Toh 4064, Degé Tengyur vol. 136 (sems tsam, shi), folios 146.b–171.b.
Subhūticandra. ’chi ba med pa’i mdzod kyi rgya cher ’grel pa ’dod ’jo’i ba mo (Amarakoṣaṭīkākāmadhenu). Toh 4300, Degé Tengyur vol. 197 (sgra mdo, se), folios 244.b–318.a.
Ratnākaraśānti. shes rab kyi pha rol tu phyin pa brgyad stong pa’i dka’ ’grel snying po mchog (Āryāṣṭasāhasrikāprajñāpāramitāpañjikāsārottamā). Toh 3803, Degé Tengyur vol. 89 (shes phyin, tha), folios 1.b–230.a.
Vasubandhu. chos mngon pa’i mdzod kyi tshig le’ur byas pa (Abhidharmakośakārikā). Toh 4089, Degé Tengyur vol. 140 (mngon pa, ku), folios 1.b–25.a.
Vilāsavajra. ’phags pa mtshan yang dag par brjod pa’i rgya cher ’grel pa mtshan gsang sngags kyi don du rnam par lta ba (Āryanāmasaṃgītiṭīkānāmamantrārthāvalokinī). Toh 2533, Degé Tengyur vol. 63 (rgyud, khu), folios 27.b–115.b.
———. chos mngon pa’i mdzod kyi bshad pa (Abhidharmakośabhāṣya). Toh 4090, Degé Tengyur vol. 140 (mngon pa, ku), folios 26.a–258.a; vol. 141 (mngon pa, khu), folios 1.b–95.a.
Yaśomitra. chos mngon pa’i mdzod kyi ’grel bshad (Abhidharmakośaṭīkā). Toh 4092, Degé Tengyur vol. 142 (mngon pa, gu), folios 1.b–330.a; vol. 143 (mngon pa, ngu), folios 1.b–333.a.
bye brag tu rtogs par byed pa chen po (Mahāvyutpatti). Toh 4346, Degé Tengyur vol. 204 (sna tshogs, co), folios 1.b–131.a.
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Glossary
Abode of neither perception nor no perception
- ’du shes med ’du shes med min skye mched
- འདུ་ཤེས་མེད་འདུ་ཤེས་མེད་མིན་སྐྱེ་མཆེད།
- naivasaṁjñānāsaṁjñāyatana
A formless state, either a meditative state or its resultant realm of existence, i.e., a class of deities of the formless realm.
Abode of the infinity of space
- nam mkha’ mtha’ yas skye mched
- ནམ་མཁའ་མཐའ་ཡས་སྐྱེ་མཆེད།
- ākāśānantyāyatana
A formless state, either a meditative state or its resultant realm of existence, i.e., a class of deities of the formless realm.
Ācārya
- slob dpon
- སློབ་དཔོན།
- ācārya
Teacher, sometimes more specifically the deputy or substitute of the upādhyāya.
Affliction
- nyon mongs pa
- ཉོན་མོངས་པ།
- kleśa
A type of mental imperfection, the most basic afflictions being attraction, aversion, and confusion.
Analysis
- dpyod pa
- དཔྱོད་པ།
- vicāra
A mental factor understood either as “the subtlety of the mind” or as the cause for such subtlety. More elaborate definitions explain it as a type of “mental murmur” (manojalpa) that is searching (paryeṣaka) and can be either based on intention (cetanā) or on wisdom (prajñā). See also “deliberation” (vitarka).
Arhat
- dgra bcom pa
- དགྲ་བཅོམ་པ།
- arhat
“Worthy one” or “someone who has killed their foes” (i.e., mental afflictions). A Buddhist saint who has obtained liberation.
As it is
- yang dag pa ji lta ba bzhin du
- ཡང་དག་པ་ཇི་ལྟ་བ་བཞིན་དུ།
- yathābhūta
Yathā means “in accordance”/“just as,” and bhūta is a participle from the root bhū, which can mean “to exist” or “to come into existence.” The term yathābhūta is a key term in Buddhist texts, indicating the way things are, the nature of things, etc. It is usually used adverbially, indicating the way in which someone cognizes.
Assembled factor
- ’du byed
- འདུ་བྱེད།
- saṁskāra
In its broadest sense, the term saṁskāra includes all impermanent entities when understood as causes. The prefix sam is here understood as indicating “coming together” or “assembling,” while the root kṛ means “to produce,” “to create.”
Asura
- lha ma yin
- ལྷ་མ་ཡིན།
- asura
One of the six classes of sentient beings. The asuras are dominated by envy, ambition, and hostility and are incessantly embroiled in disputes with the gods. They are frequently portrayed in brahmanical and Buddhist mythology as having a disruptive effect on cosmic and social harmony.
Attraction
- ’dod chags
- འདོད་ཆགས།
- rāga
One of the three basic mental afflictions (together with aversion and confusion) within which all other mental afflictions can be subsumed. The term rāga comes from the root rañj, which can also have the sense of “to color,” thus making it possible to create significant double-meanings in Sanskrit (rakta can thus mean “impassioned,” but also “red” or “blood”). Liberated beings are often described as vītarāga, “free from attraction.”
Awareness
- ye shes
- ཡེ་ཤེས།
- jñāna
The term jñāna is formed by the root jñā, meaning “to know,” “to know of,” “to understand,” “to be aware of,” with the addition of the pratyaya lyuṭ, which can be interpreted as having different values (the instrument of awareness, its agent, or the action of awareness). We have chosen “awareness” as it was the only that seemed to fit for two important (and not unrelated) contexts wherein jñāna is used: awareness of something, and nonobjective, nonconceptual awareness. In Tibetan the two senses are sometimes distinguished by using shes pa and ye shes, respectively, but the distinction in the usage of these two terms is not clearly marked in works that are translations from the Sanskrit, and hence it is less relevant for the Kangyur than it may be for indigenous Tibetan works. The nature of jñāna and its relationship with “wisdom” (prajñā) is the topic of one of the chapters of the Abhidharmakośa and is also thematized in a number of Mahāyāna sūtras and śāstras.
Bhagavat
- bcom ldan ’das
- བཅོམ་ལྡན་འདས།
- bhagavat
Epithet of a buddha; “one who has fortune” (explained as having six features) or “one who has vanquished (Māra).”
Bhikṣu
- dge slong
- དགེ་སློང་།
- bhikṣu
The term bhikṣu, which is often translated as “monk,” refers to the highest type among the eight types of prātimokṣa vows that make one part of the Buddhist assembly. The term is explained as having at least three possible meanings: (1) someone who begs; (2) someone who has taken the highest level of Buddhist ordination; and (3) someone who has destroyed mental afflictions.
Bodhisattva
- byang chub sems dpa’
- བྱང་ཆུབ་སེམས་དཔའ།
- bodhisattva
- bodhisatva
Someone who practices according to the vehicle of the bodhisattvas, those who aim at complete buddhahood; the term is explained as “awakening hero,” “one who has a wish for awakening,” or also “one who awakens sentient beings.”
Brahma
- tshangs pa
- ཚངས་པ།
- Brahman
A high-ranking deity presiding over a divine world where other beings consider him the creator; he is also considered to be the “Lord of the Sahā World” (our universe).
Brahma wheel
- tshangs pa’i ’khor lo
- ཚངས་པའི་འཁོར་ལོ།
- brāhmacakra
Here the sense is “the supreme wheel” or perhaps “the wheel of what is supreme.” See brahmacakkaṃ pavattetīti ettha brahmanti seṭṭhaṃ uttamaṃ visiṭṭhaṃ | Mahāsīhanādasutta-Aṭṭhakathā, Mūlapaṇṇāsa, Majjhimanikāya.
Brahman conduct
- tshangs par spyod pa
- ཚངས་པར་སྤྱོད་པ།
- brahmacarya
Brahman is a Sanskrit term referring to what is highest (parama) and most important (pradhāna); the Nibandhana commentary explains brahman as meaning here nirvāṇa, and thus the brahman conduct is the “conduct toward brahman,” the conduct that leads to the highest liberation, i.e., nirvāṇa. This is explained as “the path without outflows,” which is the “truth of the path” among the four truths of the noble ones. Other explanations (found in the Pāli tradition) take “brahman conduct” to mean the “best conduct,” and also the “conduct of the best,” i.e., the buddhas. In some contexts, “brahman conduct” refers more specifically to celibacy, but the specific referents of this expression are many.
Brilliancy
- spobs pa
- སྤོབས་པ།
- pratibhāna
The translation is meant to somehow echo the etymology of prati + bhāna (“forth” + “shine”), and the term does mean something like “intelligence,” “inspiration,” or “eloquence,” often referring to the intelligent presence of mind that allows one to speak in the most appropriate way, even for very long stretches of time.
Clinging
- nye bar len pa
- ཉེ་བར་ལེན་པ།
- upādāna
The term upādāna figures in at least two prominent contexts within basic Buddhist classifications. Firstly, the five aggregates are also called “aggregates of clinging” when they refer to a nonliberated person. According to the Nibandhana commentary on Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings, they are called “aggregates of clinging” for different reasons: they are “born from the clingings” because the aggregates arise due to the three mental afflictions of attraction, aversion, and confusion, which can also be called “clingings”; or, they are so called because the aggregates are under the control of the “clingings,” in the sense that it is due to the three mental afflictions that the aggregates remerge, after death, in a new realm of existence (Samtani 1971, pp. 87–88; the explanation in the Nibandhana partly follows Abhidharmakośabhāṣya on kārikā 1.8; see Pradhan 1967, p. 5).
Another important context of the term upādāna is as the ninth of the “twelve parts of dependent arising.” Here upādāna arises with craving (tṛṣṇā) as its condition. The difference between “craving” and “clinging” is explained by Vasubandhu as follows: it is “craving” when one strongly wants enjoyments but has not yet started searching for those objects of enjoyments (yāvan na tadviṣayaparyeṣṭim āpadyate); it is “clinging” once one starts seeking ways to obtain those objects of enjoyments and thus runs in all directions (viṣayaprāptaye paryeṣṭim āpannaḥ sarvato dhāvati). See Pradhan 1967, p. 132.
Consciousness
- rnam par shes pa
- རྣམ་པར་ཤེས་པ།
- vijñāna
The term vijñāna is formed by the prefix vi plus a formation from the root jñā, which means “to know,” “to understand,” “to know of,” “to be aware of.” (This is reproduced in the Tibetan as rnam par + shes pa.) “Consciousness” has a specific meaning in Buddhist texts and refers to awareness of an object, point of reference, or support. This meaning is occasionally obtained by understanding the vi as standing for viṣaya, which means a domain of activity and, in this case, the object of perception. The standard list of consciousness types is six, corresponding to the five sense faculties plus the “thought consciousness.” This refers to a type of mental perception that arises taking as its basis not a sense faculty but a prior moment of consciousness itself; this type of consciousness is unrestricted as per its possible range of objects, both in terms of their location in time (past, present, or future) and in terms of their type (visual, audible, etc., including entities that are not within the range of any of the five senses).
Contact
- reg pa
- རེག་པ།
- sparśa
This can mean either, more literally, “touch,” or coming into contact; in the context of the twelve parts of dependent arising, “contact” refers more specifically to the coming together of the object, faculty, and consciousness. According to some abhidharma masters, this coming together gives rise to a specific entity called “contact,” while others consider “contact” to simply describe a specific state of those three entities, i.e., when object, faculty, and consciousness are “together” and thus able to give rise to notion. It is also worth noticing that the root spṛś is used far more often in Sanskrit than either “to touch” or “to come in contact with” is used in English, and can often mean something like “to obtain” etc.
Control of Others’ Emanations
- gzhan ’phrul dbang byed
- གཞན་འཕྲུལ་དབང་བྱེད།
- Paranirmitavaśavartin
The highest level of the desire realm.
Copulation dharma
- khrig pa’i chos
- ཁྲིག་པའི་ཆོས།
- maithunadharma
This refers to the habit of copulation, called a dharma perhaps as it is a property/feature that belongs to those who copulate, or in the sense of something that is one’s course of behavior.
Deities of the Brahmā group
- tshangs rigs kyi lha
- ཚངས་རིགས་ཀྱི་ལྷ།
- brahmakāyika
A class of deities, the first, i.e., lowest, in the form realm.
Deliberation
- rtog pa
- རྟོག་པ།
- vitarka
A mental factor understood either as “the coarseness of the mind” or as the cause for such coarseness. More elaborate definitions explain it as a type of “mental murmur” (manojalpa) that is searching (paryeṣaka) and can be either based on intention (cetanā) or on wisdom (prajñā). See also “analysis” (vicāra).
Dependent arising
- rten cing ’brel par ’byung ba
- རྟེན་ཅིང་འབྲེལ་པར་འབྱུང་བ།
- pratītyasamutpāda
A key term for Buddhist philosophy that represents the basic Buddhist understanding of causal processes.
In pratītya-samutpāda, a compound of two terms, samutpāda means “arisin” or “coming into existence” and poses little interpretive difficulty. The preverb sam- is sometimes understood as meaning “together” (samavāyena), referring to the doctrine that no entity whatsoever arises on its own—ultimately existent bits of materiality always arise with other bits, and moments of mind are always accompanied by mental states. The sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti, however, clarifies that the Tibetan translation has ’brel par in the sense of “connection,” a rendering of sambandha resulting from an interpretation of the sam- as indicating connection (sam ni sambandha stes ’brel pa la bya).
The first part of the compound, pratītya, can be explained in two very different ways, which have occasioned lengthy debates at the crossroads of philosophy and grammar. According to one explanation, it would mean “things that are each bound to go, to vanish,” hence the whole expression would mean something like “the arising of things that are each bound to vanish,” i.e., the arising of impermanent things. This explanation is favored, for example, by Bhāviveka, and Candrakīrti criticizes him for it (see Macdonald 2015, pp. 121–32). It is also the one opted for by Vīryaśrīdatta in the Nibandhana commentary on Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings (see Samtani 1971, p. 98).
The other interpretation takes pratītya as meaning “having obtained” or “having depended upon,” more flexibly also “depending,” i.e., without necessarily implying temporal succession of two activities by the same entity, which is problematic, as the entity cannot be easily expected to do something (even “depending”) before it has come into existence (unless one is a Vaibhāṣika who accepts existence of future entities). In this interpretation, the sense of the whole expression is expanded as “arising in dependence upon an assemblage of causes and conditions.” This interpretation seems to be prevalent, and hence it has been followed in the translation (it is also the basis for the Tibetan rendering as rten cing ’brel par ’byung ba). It has the distinct advantage of matching the only possible sense of pratītya when it appears outside of a compound in sūtra passages where the dependent arising of, say, eye consciousness is described. A long discussion of the proper sense and the two interpretations of the term pratītyasamutpāda can be found in chapter 3 of the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya (Pradhan 1967, p. 138).
We find numerous different explanations of dependent arising in the Buddhist texts, but three of them are most prominent: a short general definition of contingent coming into existence, as “A being there, B exists; from the arising of A, B arises”; the example of the arising of a single momentary entity, as “depending upon visible form and the eye faculty, eye consciousness arises”; and lastly the process of causality known as “dependent arising with twelve parts,” which describes the birth, complete life cycle, death, and rebirth of a sentient being in the desire realm (the part of the universe where we live and where several classes of sentient beings are born from a womb).
The twelve parts of dependent arising are often distributed into three lifetimes: ignorance and assembled factors belong to the previous lifetime; consciousness, name-and-form, the six entrances, contact, feeling, craving, clinging, and existence belong to the present lifetime; and birth and decay-and-death belong to the future lifetime (see Abhidharmakośabhāṣya 3.25, Pradhan 1967, pp. 133–34). This explanation allows one to make good sense of the frequent sequence, found in the sūtras, where first dependent arising is explained, and then it is said to vanquish all views regarding past, present, or future lives (this progression is also found in the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā; see Salvini 2011).
Dependent arising with twelve parts
- rten cing ’brel par ’byung ba yan lag bcu gnyis
- རྟེན་ཅིང་འབྲེལ་པར་འབྱུང་བ་ཡན་ལག་བཅུ་གཉིས།
- dvādaśāṅgapratītyasamutpāda
See “dependent arising.” These are the twelve causal links that perpetuate life in cyclic existence, starting with ignorance and ending with death.
Descendant of Manu
- shed las skyes
- ཤེད་ལས་སྐྱེས།
- manuja
Literally “born from Manu,” considered the first ancestor of all humans.
Dharma
- chos
- ཆོས།
- dharma
Among its many meanings, this term can refer to the teachings of the Buddha (when capitalized in this translation); positive actions that accord with it; an entity, which has (dhṛ) certain features through which it may be cognized (also the relevant sense in which it is used when dharmas are listed as the objects of thought); and a property or a quality (such as when discussing the Buddhadharmas, i.e., the dharmas of the Buddha, meaning his special qualities or properties).
Distinctly ascertaining the meanings
- don rnam par nges pa
- དོན་རྣམ་པར་ངེས་པ།
- arthaviniścaya
The Nibandhana commentary explains the term arthaviniścaya twice. It first states, “ ‘Distinctly ascertaining the meanings’ means classifying/analyzing the dharmas” (arthānāṁ viniścayo dharmāṇāṁ pravicayaḥ, Samtani 1971, p. 73). This interpretation equates arthaviniścaya with the key term dharmapravicaya (“classifying the dharmas”), a synonym of “higher cognition” (prajñā), “special insight” (vipaśyanā), and, importantly, abhidharma.
The second explanation is slightly more elaborate: “For sentient beings, by listening to this, there is an ascertainment of the meaning/purpose in manifold ways; thus, this is a name wherein the meaning corresponds” (arthasya vividhākāreṇa niścayo bhavaty etat-śravaṇāt sattvānām ity anugatārthā saṁjñā, Samtani 1971, p. 83).
Samtani (1971, p. 57ff.) argues against taking the word artha to here signify “meaning(s),” and suggests instead that it should be understood as “topic,” “subject matter,” or “category”; thus, while Ferrari’s previous rendering would translate into English as “the determination of the meaning” (“la determinazione del significato,” Ferrari 1944, p. 588) and match our own preference, his own translation of arthaviniścaya is “compendium of categories” (Samtani 2002, p. 3). Bhikkhu Ānandajoti prefers “analysis of the topics” (Ānandajoti 2016, front cover), which also matches Norman’s preference (“analysis of the (Buddhist) topics,” Norman 1973, p. 677).
While we do not think that translating as either “category” or “topic” is, per se, wrong (for, one could say, the two senses of artha as “topic” and artha as “meaning” are somewhat overlapping), the arguments offered by Samtani do not entirely convince us. One of his arguments is that dharma = “category,” and therefore, since the commentary tells us that artha = dharma, it follows that artha is a category; here our difficulty is with the premise, since we believe that here dharma means “entity” rather “category,” and indeed dharmas as entities are meanings/referents as opposed to words (śabda). Another argument adduced by Samtani is based on his interpretation of a quote from Yaśomitra, where artha is equated with viṣaya, which in turn Samtani explains as “subject matter.” However, we think that the context of that passage (Wogihara 1989, p. 23) rather strongly suggests that it is not explaining the word artha as meaning “subject matter” but rather as “object,” i.e., viṣaya as “domain,” here in the sense of the domain of sensory activity of one of the five sense faculties. Yaśomitra is here explaining the term artha appearing in the expression “objects of the sense faculties” (indriyārthāḥ, Abhidharmakośakārikā 1.9).
Furthermore, we are not entirely sure that the sense of artha in the two explanations offered by the Nibandhana is exactly the same; we think that in the second explanation it is quite possible that artha (in the singular, unlike in the first interpretation) also, or maybe even primarily, carries the sense of “purpose” or “goal” (one could say “what is meaningful,” with a bit of a stretch). It is also quite likely that different nuances of the sense of artha are implied in the commentary, which is a virtue rather than a defect in Sanskrit writing (as we understand it).
We opted for “meaning” for the following reasons: it has a somewhat more vague/less specified feel (to us; “ascertaining the topics” could well mean ascertaining which topics are there (rather than, in fact, ascertaining their meanings); and, also taking into account other passages where the term arthaviniścaya occurs, we think it desirable to retain at least a suggestion of the opposition between “word” versus “meaning” (śabda vs. artha), which is of crucial importance in the Buddhist tradition (“relying on the meaning rather than on the words” is one of the four reliances (pratiśaraṇa); “relying on the topics” or “on the categories” may not sound too far from “relying on the words,” let alone be its opposite. Thus, “meaning/meaningful/purpose/what has purpose” is the range of meanings that we primarily read in the artha appearing in the expression arthaviniścaya.
The following passages use the term arthaviniścaya in contexts that are different from our sūtra, and thus we do not claim that any of them, or even all of them taken together, should lead to a conclusive ascertainment of the meaning of artha. However, we think they may clarify our purpose in using “meaning”:
“The awareness of all sounds of speech; the awareness of the etymological explanations; the awareness of the distinct ascertainment of the meaning/what is meaningful/what is of benefit; the avoidance of what is not of benefit/what is meaningless” (sarvarutajñānaṃ | niruktivyavasthānajñānaṃ | arthaviniścayajñānaṃ | anarthavivarjanaṁ, Samādhirājasūtra 37.27; Dutt 1941, p. 18).
“He sets aside the incoherent meaning/unconnected purpose; he is very certain in respect to the distinct ascertainment of the meanings/purposes” (asaṃsaktam artham uddharati suviniścito bhavati arthaviniścaye, Śayanāsanavastu, Gnoli 1978b, p. 45).
“This is a negation of the word-meaning; the real thing is not set aside. In this way, the distinct ascertainment of the meaning should also be understood in respect to other sentences” (śabdārthapratiṣedho 'yaṃ na vastu vinivāryate | evam anyeṣv api jñeyo vākyeṣv arthaviniścayaḥ, Prajñāpāramitāpiṇḍārthaḥ of Dignāga, Tucci 1947, p. 58; Tucci here translates arthaviniścayaḥ as “determination of the things,” p. 65).
“What is the distinct ascertainment of the meaning? It is where there is a distinct ascertainment in respect to six meanings. Which six meanings? The meaning of own-being, the meaning of cause, the meaning of result, the meaning of karma, the meaning of yoga, and the meaning of occurrence” (arthaviniścayaḥ katamaḥ| yatra ṣaḍarthān ārabhya viniścayo bhavati || katame ṣaḍ arthāḥ | svabhāvārthaḥ hetvarthaḥ phalārthaḥ karmārthaḥ yogārthaḥ vṛttyarthaś ca, Abhidharmasamuccaya, Hayashima 2003, p. 858).
Eight types of persons
- skyes bu gang zag ya brgyad
- སྐྱེས་བུ་གང་ཟག་ཡ་བརྒྱད།
- aṣṭapuruṣapudgala
See “four pairs of persons.”
Eighteen bases
- khams bcwa brgyad
- ཁམས་བཅྭ་བརྒྱད།
- aṣṭādaśadhātu
Eighteen collections of similar dharmas under which all coproduced and unproduced dharmas may be included: eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and thought, plus their objects—visible forms, sounds, smells, flavors, tangibles, and dharmas—plus the consciousnesses corresponding to each of the first six. The eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and thought are the basis for the arising of consciousness, though here there is the technical sense of a prior moment in any of the six consciousnesses. The first five consciousnesses depend on the five sense faculties as their basis, while the basis for the thought consciousness can be any of the six consciousnesses but not a sense faculty. Hence thought is classified among the dhātus (“elements”) in the section meant to offer a complete list of the possible bases of consciousness, i.e., what is most frequently listed as the second set of six elements.
The term dhātu is explained as having the sense of an ore (gotra), like a mineral ore, hence a point of origin (ākara). The bases are the points of origin for the arising of similar dharmas. The Nibandhana commentary on Distinctly Ascertaining the Meanings explains that the order of enumeration of the eighteen bases can be explained in terms of the specific way in which different sense faculties operate within their domains or in terms of the placement (from higher to lower) of the eye faculty, the ear faculty, and so forth. The Abhidharmakośa explains that the teaching of the bases is for those who are of weaker abilities, since it is very detailed; it is for those who prefer special insight meditation (vipaśyanā), because it contains extensive analysis; and it counteracts a delusion of “self” that is evenly distributed between sentient and nonsentient elements, since the eighteen bases offer an analysis both of form and of mind and mental derivatives.
Eighteen dharmas exclusive to a buddha
- sangs rgyas kyi chos ma ’dres pa bcwa brgyad
- སངས་རྒྱས་ཀྱི་ཆོས་མ་འདྲེས་པ་བཅྭ་བརྒྱད།
- aṣṭādaśāveṇikabuddhadharma
This refers to eighteen properties/qualities that are unique to buddhas, “property” being one of the possible meanings of the term dharma.
Eighty minor marks
- dpe byad bzang po brgyad cu
- དཔེ་བྱད་བཟང་པོ་བརྒྱད་ཅུ།
- aśītyanuvyañjana
The set of eighty physical marks that identify both a buddha and a universal monarch (cakravartin); in the case of the former they indicate the perfection of the awakened state of buddhahood.
Element
- khams
- ཁམས།
- dhātu
The list of dhātus in the sense of “elements” comprises the four great elements (see “great elements”) of earth, water, heat, and wind, plus space and consciousness, and is a list specifically designed to describe the assemblage of conditions that makes it possible for a new moment of consciousness to arise after the last moment of consciousness at death, i.e., it is meant to explain the process of rebirth.
Endowed with knowledge and feet
- rig pa dang zhabs su ldan pa
- རིག་པ་དང་ཞབས་སུ་ལྡན་པ།
- vidyācaraṇasampanna
The Nibandhana explains this as a metaphor of the eye and the feet, which, operating together, allow one to move; knowledge, interpreted as either “right view” or as “the training in wisdom,” is like the eye, while the other seven parts of the noble eightfold path, or the two other trainings in discipline and samādhi, function as the “feet.” This explanation is also found in the sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti, which further clarifies that zhabs is here simply the honorific term for “foot” (caraṇa ni rkang pa). Thus, although it is not uncommon to translate caraṇa here with “conduct,” this loses the significance of the metaphor.
Ensuing weariness
- ’khrug pa
- འཁྲུག་པ།
- upāyāsa
The Nibandhana explains this as “the fatigue that is preceded by grief and lamentation” (śokaparidevapūrvakaśramaḥ, Samtani 1971, p. 102).
Entering the stream
- rgyun du zhugs pa
- རྒྱུན་དུ་ཞུགས་པ།
- srota-āpatti
The first level of realization that transforms an ordinary person into a “noble one,” someone who has directly seen the nature of reality and has a sufficiently stable level of realization to be already bound toward liberation from saṃsāra.
Existence with desire
- ’dod pa’i srid pa
- འདོད་པའི་སྲིད་པ།
- kāmabhava
The lowest of the three planes of existence, where coarse desires for all the sense objects are present.
Existence with form
- gzugs kyi srid pa
- གཟུགས་ཀྱི་སྲིད་པ།
- rūpabhava
The middling type among the three planes of existence, where desire for coarse food or copulation is absent.
Factors of abandonment
- spong ba’i ’du byed
- སྤོང་བའི་འདུ་བྱེད།
- prahāṇasaṃskāra
The Nibandhana explains that this refers to a standard list of eight assembled factors: zest (chanda), effort (vyāyāma), faith (śraddhā), mindfulness (smṛti), discerning awareness (saṁprajanya), intention (cetanā), and equanimity (upekṣā) (Samtani 1971, p. 221).
Faculty
- dbang po
- དབང་པོ།
- indriya
“Faculties” is a translation meant to represent the preferred etymologization of indriya in Buddhist texts as indanti, meaning “they have power,” which is also reflected in the Tibetan translation as dbang po. Different lists of indriyas exist within the Buddhist texts, their common trait being that they have “power” over a specific domain of activity. For example, the five sense faculties have causal power with respect to seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting, and touching.
Faith
- dad pa
- དད་པ།
- śraddhā
Here “faith” is not used so much in the sense of “religious faith,” but rather as when one says, “I have faith in you” or “I have faith in your good qualities.” It is often explained as “a good disposition of the mind” (cetasaḥ prasādaḥ) toward something and is occasionally divided into three types: faith as the conviction that something exists, faith as the conviction that something has good qualities, and faith as the conviction that something with good qualities can be obtained.
Feeling
- tshor ba
- ཚོར་བ།
- vedanā
The second of the five aggregates and the seventh of the twelve parts of dependent arising.
Five aggregates
- phung po lnga
- ཕུང་པོ་ལྔ།
- pañcaskandha
Five collections of similar dharmas under which all dependently arisen dharmas may be included: form (materiality), feeling, notion, assembled factors, and consciousness.
Five aggregates of clinging
- nye bar len pa’i phung po lnga
- ཉེ་བར་ལེན་པའི་ཕུང་པོ་ལྔ།
- pañcopādānaskandha
The five aggregates of form, feeling, notion, assembled factors, and consciousness. They are referred to as the bases for clinging insofar as all conceptual grasping arises based on these aggregates.
Five faculties
- dbang po lnga
- དབང་པོ་ལྔ།
- pañcendriya
The faculties of faith, heroism, mindfulness, samādhi, and wisdom. They are the same as the five strengths, only at a lesser stage of development.
Five strengths
- stobs lnga
- སྟོབས་ལྔ།
- pañcabala
The strengths of faith, heroism, mindfulness, samādhi, and wisdom. They are the same as the five faculties, only at a greater stage of development.
Five supramundane faculties
- ’jig rten las ’das pa’i dbang po lnga
- འཇིག་རྟེན་ལས་འདས་པའི་དབང་པོ་ལྔ།
- pañcalokottarendriya
See the “five faculties.”
Flux
- zag pa
- ཟག་པ།
- āsrava
Most of the explanations of the term āsrava derive it from the root sru (“to flow,” “to ooze”) and understand the preverb ā- variously either as “flowing in,” “flowing out from,” or simply emphasizing the action of flowing. The Tibetan translation also translates the sense of the root but does not explicitly render the preverb; zag pa is attested as a translation of several other Sanskrit terms that mean “to flow,” “to ooze,” etc. (sravaḥ, srāvaṇam, syandī, etc.; see Negi vol. 12, p. 5353). The derivation from ā + sru follows clear grammatical principles (vyākaraṇa); furthermore, there is another derivation from the root ās (“to sit,” “to remain”), which is in accordance with etymology by sound association (nirukti).
Vasubandhu offers two alternatives: “They cause beings to remain (āsayanti) within saṃsāra” and “They flow from the Summit of Existence down to the Unwavering, out of the six wounds that are the entrances” (āsayanti saṃsāre āsravanti bhavāgrādyāvadavīciṃ ṣaḍbhir āyatanavraṇair ityāsravāḥ, Abhidharmakośabhāṣya on 5.40, Pradhan 1967, p. 308). The “Summit of Existence” is the highest point within saṃsāra, while the hell called “Unwavering” is the lowest; the six entrances here refer to the five sense faculties plus the mind, i.e., the six internal entrances in the scheme of twelve entrances.
The Pāli tradition offers similar derivations. For example, the commentary on The Sutta on All the Āsavas explains the term āsava in the following ways:
“They flow (āsavanti), thus they are āsavas: even from the eye, up to even from thought, they ooze, they come about—this is what is being said here” (āsavantīti āsavā, cakkhutopi . . . pe . . . manatopi sandanti pavattantīti vuttaṃ hoti, Aṭṭhakathā on the Sabbāsavasutta.) (This explanation matches quite closely the second one in the Abhidharmakośabhāṣya.) The “up to” here reproduces the pe, an abbreviation meant to convey an incomplete list. The complete list would be “even from the eye, even from the ear, even from the nose, even from the tongue, even from the body, even from thought”—i.e., the list of the six internal entrances.
“Alternatively, from the dhammas to the gotrabhū, from space to the Summit of Existence, they flow, thus they are āsavas. Entering inside these dhammas and this space, they come about—this is the sense; for this ā- has the sense of ‘entering inside’ ” (dhammato yāva gotrabhuṃ okāsato yāva bhavaggaṃ savantīti vā āsavā | ete dhamme etañ ca okāsaṃ anto karitvā pavattantīti attho. antokaraṇattho hi ayaṃ ākāro || Aṭṭhakathā on the Sabbāsavasutta).
“ ‘Liquor and so forth are āsavas’ in the sense that they stay in one place for a long time; since they are ‘like the āsavas,’ these are ‘āsavas.’ For, in this world, liquor and so forth that stay in one place for a long time are called āsavas. And if they are āsavas in the sense that they stay in one place for a long time, these indeed are worthy of being so. For, it has been said, ‘A prior limit, bhikkhus, is not found for ignorance, wherein one could say that “before this there was no ignorance,” and so forth’ ” (cirapārivāsiyaṭṭhena madirādayo āsavā | āsavā viyātipi āsavā. lokasmiñ hi cirapārivāsikā madirādayo āsavāti vuccanti || yadi ca cirapārivāsiyaṭṭhena āsavā | eteyeva bhavitum arahanti | vuttañ hetaṃ purimā bhikkhave koṭi na paññāyati avijjāya ito pubbe avijjā nāhosītiādi || Aṭṭhakathā on the Sabbāsavasutta A.Ni.10.61).
“Alternatively, they ooze, they ooze forth, future suffering of saṃsāra—thus they are āsavas” (āyataṃ vā saṃsāradukkhaṃ savanti pasavantītipi āsavā, Aṭṭhakathā on the Sabbāsavasutta).
From all this, we conclude that (1) the derivation from the root sru (“to flow” etc.) is in some ways primary, and it follows principles of grammar (vyākaraṇa) rather than those of etymology by sound association (nirukti), as Yaśomitra clarifies is the case for the etymology from ās (“to sit” etc.); (2) the value of the preverb ā- was understood variously (“from,” “out of,” or as an intensifier), thus it is impossible to decide whether to render it as “in,” “out,” etc.; (3) translators who chose zag pa to render āsrava were most likely aware of both the above points.
Considering all the above, we have opted for “fluxes” rather than “influences” or “outflows.”
Four Brahma abodes
- tshangs pa’i gnas pa bzhi
- ཚངས་པའི་གནས་པ་བཞི།
- caturbrahmavihāra
Friendliness, compassion, rejoicing, and equanimity are called “Brahma abodes,” according to the commentarial traditions, because one abides with a mind like that of the deity Brahmā and because they are a cause to be born in the world of Brahmā. It is important to point out, though, that the original Sanskrit compound brahma-vihāra does not specify the gender of the term brahman, which could therefore either refer to Brahmā as a deity or to brahman, meaning more generally “what is most exalted,” as is sometimes simply used in the sense of “sublime” etc. We have therefore attempted to retain the ambiguity by using neither “Brahmā” (which is by common convention used only for the deity) nor “brahman” (which is by common convention used only for “what is most exalted” etc.), but rather “Brahma.”
Four courses
- lam bzhi
- ལམ་བཞི།
- catuḥpratipad
Listed here as the course that is painful and that is slow in superior cognition, the course that is painful and that is quick in superior cognition, the course that is pleasant and that is slow in superior cognition, and the course that is pleasant and that is quick in superior cognition.
Four cultivations of samādhi
- ting nge ’dzin bsgom pa bzhi
- ཏིང་ངེ་འཛིན་བསྒོམ་པ་བཞི།
- catuḥsamādhibhāvanā
Listed here as the cultivation of samādhi that brings about the destruction of attraction, the cultivation of samādhi that brings about a pleasant abiding in this very life, the cultivation of samādhi that brings about the obtainment of the vision of awareness, and the cultivation of samādhi that brings about the obtainment of wisdom.
Four footings of success
- rdzu ’phrul gyi rkang pa bzhi
- རྫུ་འཕྲུལ་གྱི་རྐང་པ་བཞི།
- caturṛddhipāda
Extraordinary abilities that arise due to success in meditation. They are the footings of success based on isolation, based on nonattraction, based on cessation, and matured by relinquishment.
Four formless aggregates
- gzugs can ma yin pa’i phung po bzhi
- གཟུགས་ཅན་མ་ཡིན་པའི་ཕུང་པོ་བཞི།
- caturarūpiskandha
Listed here as the aggregates of feeling, notion, assembled factors, and consciousness.
Four meditations
- bsam gtan bzhi
- བསམ་གཏན་བཞི།
- caturdhyāna
A standard classification of four increasingly refined meditative states found in Buddhist texts.
Four pairs of persons
- skyes bu zung bzhi
- སྐྱེས་བུ་ཟུང་བཞི།
- catuḥpuruṣayuga
This refers stream enterers, once-returners, non-returners, and arhats, along with those practicing to attain the realizations of those states.
Four parts of entering the stream
- rgyun du zhugs pa’i yan lag bzhi
- རྒྱུན་དུ་ཞུགས་པའི་ཡན་ལག་བཞི།
- —
Described as four attributes of śrāvakas: they are well disposed toward the Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha, and they are endowed with the types of discipline that are highly valued by the noble ones.
Four placements of mindfulness
- dran pa nye bar gzhag pa bzhi
- དྲན་པ་ཉེ་བར་གཞག་པ་བཞི།
- catuḥsmṛtyupasthāna
Mindfulness of the body, mindfulness of feelings, mindfulness of the mind, and mindfulness of dharmas, the last understood variously as either all dharmas or a specific list of dharmas.
Four right efforts
- yang dag par sbong ba bzhi
- ཡང་དག་པར་སྦོང་བ་བཞི།
- catuḥsamyakprahāṇa
Four correct ways in which to strive, sometimes also employed to explain “right effort” in the context of the noble path with eight parts. They are abandoning nonvirtuous dharmas that have not yet arisen and those that have already arisen, generating virtuous dharmas that have yet to arise, and maintaining virtuous dharmas that have already arisen.
Four special knowledges
- so so yang dag par rig pa bzhi
- སོ་སོ་ཡང་དག་པར་རིག་པ་བཞི།
- catuḥpratisaṃvid
A list of special cognitive abilities that characterize realized beings. They are the special knowledges of meaning, of dharmas, of explanations, and of brilliancy.
Four truths of the noble ones
- ’phags pa’i bden pa bzhi
- འཕགས་པའི་བདེན་པ་བཞི།
- caturāryasatya
A paradigmatic set of teachings traditionally believed to have been taught in the Buddha’s very first sermon. They are the truths of suffering, the arising of suffering, the cessation of suffering, and the path that leads to the cessation of suffering.
Granary
- sbyang
- སྦྱང་།
- koṣṭhāgāra
- mutoḍī
De Jong points out that “the word sbyaṅ is recorded in Sumatiratna’s Tibetan-Mongolian Dictionary, II, (Ulanbator, 1959), p. 357: rtsva daṅ ‘bru-la sogs-pa ’jog-pa’i gnas-te sgo daṅ skar-khuṅ med-pa/yaṅ baṅ-ba ’am rdzaṅ yaṅ źes-pa sbyaṅ “a place without doors and windows where herbs and grains are stored; also a store-room or a box” (De Jong 1975, p. 117). (We thank James Gentry for pointing out the sense of “granary.”)
The term sbyang, if it may indeed be understood as something akin to a “box,” could rather match the term mutoḍī (see Edgerton 1993, p. 436), reported by Samtani as the reading of ANe Comy (the manuscript of the Nibandhana commentary), and also appearing (as mūtoḍī) in the relevant Śikṣāsamuccaya parallel (see Samtani 1971, p. 24, n. 2), rather than the term koṣṭhāgāra in the printed edition. The term mutoḍī matches the Pāli putoỊī/mūtoỊī/mutoli found in Pāli passages parallel to this and explained as follows:
“A putoḷi is a circular container made by tying together clothes and so forth in the shape of a sack” (vatthādīhi pasibbakākārena bandhitvā kataṃ āvāṭanaṃ putoḷi, ṭīkā on the Mahāsatipaṭṭhānasutta, Mahāvagga, Dīghanikāya; vatthādīhi pasibbakākārena bandhitvā kataṃ āvaṭanaṃ putoḷi, ṭīka on the Mahāsatipaṭṭānasutta, Mūlapaṇṇāsa, Majjhimanikāya; here we take it that āvāṭanam/āvaṭanam = āvaṭṭanam).
Great element
- ’byung ba chen po
- འབྱུང་བ་ཆེན་པོ།
- mahābhūta
The four great elements of earth, water, heat, and wind do not refer to the coarse entities by the same name, but rather to minimal entities characterized by specific features (such as “hardness” for the earth element) and specific functions (such as “supporting” for the earth element). These elements are usually believed to be in principle invisible; all primary rūpa (“form/materiality”) is in principle invisible, while visibility is a type of secondary rūpa, which depends on the four great elements but is not to be confused with them.
Heroism
- brtson ’grus
- བརྩོན་འགྲུས།
- vīrya
The term vīrya is related to, and often derived from, vīra, which is related to the Latin vir, from which both “virility” and “virtue” are derived. Vīrya brings to mind heroism, valor, virility, courage, and strength. Although vīrya is often translated as “diligence,” we have here chosen to render it “heroism.”
Isolation
- dben pa
- དབེན་པ།
- viveka
This may refer to either literal, bodily isolation, i.e., seclusion, or to the isolation of the mind from certain (usually undesirable) mental factors. The two senses are related, and as the relationship between the two senses is both implicitly and explicitly thematized in Buddhist texts, a single translation for both the more “outer” and the more “inner” forms of isolation is here meant to respect a clearly intended suggestion found throughout Buddhist literature. The term can also refer to conceptual isolation, i.e., discernment.
Jinamitra
- dzi na mi tra
- ཛི་ན་མི་ཏྲ།
- Jinamitra
An Indian paṇḍita resident in Tibet during the late 8th and early 9th centuries.
Kalaviṅka
- ka la ping ka
- ཀ་ལ་པིང་ཀ
- kalaviṅka
A legendary bird whose voice is believed to be extremely beautiful. It is often depicted as having a human head.
Karma
- las
- ལས།
- karman
Intention or what follows an intention. Intention is mental karma; what follows an intention is verbal and bodily karma.
Mahānārāyaṇa
- sred med kyi bu chen po
- སྲེད་མེད་ཀྱི་བུ་ཆེན་པོ།
- Mahānārāyaṇa
A powerful deity of the desire realm, more commonly known as Viṣṇu.
Mindfulness
- dran pa
- དྲན་པ།
- smṛti
The root smṛ may mean to “recollect,” but also simply to “think of” something. “Mindfulness” means, broadly speaking, bringing something to mind, not necessarily something experienced in a distant past but also something just experienced, such as the position of one’s body.
Mindfulness of inhalation and exhalation with sixteen aspects
- dbugs dbyung ba dang rngub pa rjes su dran pa rnam pa bcu drug
- དབུགས་དབྱུང་བ་དང་རྔུབ་པ་རྗེས་སུ་དྲན་པ་རྣམ་པ་བཅུ་དྲུག
- ṣoḍaśākārānāpānānusmṛti
A method of meditation that requires the practitioner to be aware of different aspects of the breath and what accompanies it.
Mṛgāra
- ri dags ’dzin
- རི་དགས་འཛིན།
- Mṛgāra
The name of a rich man.
Mṛgāra’s mother
- ri dags ’dzin gyi ma
- རི་དགས་འཛིན་གྱི་མ།
- Mṛgāramātṛ
This is the nickname of an upāsikā (female lay practitioner), actually called Viśākhā, who is sometimes considered the most prominent among female lay followers of the Buddha. She had married the son of a man called Mṛgāra, who was originally a Jaina but went to meet the Buddha and even become a stream enterer thanks to her. Feeling indebted to her, he said that she was like his mother, which is the origin of the nickname.
Name
- ming
- མིང་།
- nāma
The term nāma ordinarily means “name,” but in the context of “name-and-form” it refers more specifically to everything that makes up sentience, i.e., the mind and mental factors. In that context, the term is sometimes etymologized from the root nam in the sense of “bending,” either toward an object (perceiving an object), or toward a new birth.
Name-and-form
- ming dang gzugs
- མིང་དང་གཟུགས།
- nāmarūpa
The fourth of the twelve parts of dependent arising.
Nandyāvarta
- g.yung drung ’khyil ba
- གཡུང་དྲུང་འཁྱིལ་བ།
- nandyāvarta
A special symbol sometimes resembling a W.
Noble
- ’phags pa
- འཕགས་པ།
- ārya
When referring to a person, it is someone who has entered the “path of seeing”—someone who has a direct and stable realization of the four truths of the noble ones and who thus ceases to be an “ordinary person,” becoming a “noble one.”
Noble path with eight parts
- ’phags pa’i lam yan lag brgyad
- འཕགས་པའི་ལམ་ཡན་ལག་བརྒྱད།
- āryāṣṭāṅgamārga
Right view, right thinking, right speech, right activity, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right samādhi.
Non-returner
- phyir mi ’ong ba
- ཕྱིར་མི་འོང་བ།
- anāgāmin
One who has achieved the third of the four levels of attainment on the śrāvaka path and who will not be reborn in saṃsāra.
Nourishing being
- gso ba
- གསོ་བ།
- poṣa
Edgerton favors the theory according to which poṣa/posa should be derived from puruṣa; however, the Tibetan translation reflects a different etymologization of the term that must have been current at the time of the Tibetan translations of Sanskrit texts. Pāli etymologies also suggest a link to the idea of “nourishing” (attabhāvassa posanato poso), and therefore we have preferred to follow traditional etymologies that better reflect how the South Asian and Tibetan masters understood the term.
Once-returner
- lan cig phyir ’ong ba
- ལན་ཅིག་ཕྱིར་འོང་བ།
- sakṛdāgāmin
One who has achieved the second of the four levels of attainment on the śrāvaka path and who will only take one more rebirth before attaining liberation.
Parts of awakening
- byang chub kyi yan lag
- བྱང་ཆུབ་ཀྱི་ཡན་ལག
- bodhyaṅgāni
See “seven parts of awakening.”
Pleasance
- kun dga’ ra ba
- ཀུན་དགའ་ར་བ།
- ārāma
Somewhat akin to what in English is expressed by the term “pleasance” (also in its etymology), an ārāma is a pleasant garden, a green habitable space. The Buddha and his disciples are often found to dwell in such ārāmas, and the term is even found in contemporary usage in names of Thai monasteries.
Prajñāvarman
- pra dz+nyA barma
- པྲ་ཛྙཱ་བརྨ།
- Prajñāvarman
A Bengali paṇḍita resident in Tibet during the late 8th and early 9th centuries. Arriving in Tibet on an invitation from the Tibetan king, he assisted in the translation of numerous canonical scriptures. He is also the author of a few philosophical commentaries contained in the Tibetan Tengyur (bstan ’gyur) collection.
Proper way
- rigs pa
- རིགས་པ།
- nyāya
The Nibandhana explains nyāya as follows: “Nyāya refers to the dharma of nirvāṇa, for it has been said that āya means a path, and that an “eternal path” (nityam āyaḥ) is called nyāya.”
Rejoicing and attraction
- dga’ ba’i ’dod chags
- དགའ་བའི་འདོད་ཆགས།
- nandīrāga
The Nibandhana explains that “rejoicing” refers to a happy, joyful mind (saumanasya).
Samādhi
- ting nge ’dzin
- ཏིང་ངེ་འཛིན།
- samādhi
Some readers may be familiar with the term samadhi, written without diacritics as it would appear in English dictionaries, where it is usually explained as referring to meditation or meditative states.
In a more restricted sense, and when understood as a mental state, samādhi is defined as the one-pointedness of the mind (cittaikāgratā), the ability to remain on the same object over long periods of time. In Vaibhāṣika abhidharma, samādhi is a mental state that accompanies each and every moment of mind; the practice of meditation and the like is for the purpose of making samādhi more powerful (samādhiś cittasyaikagrateti | agram ālambanam ity eko 'rthaḥ | yadyogāc cittaṃ prabandhena ekatrālambane vartate | sa samādhiḥ | yadi samādhiḥ sarvacetasi bhavati | kim arthaṃ dhyāneṣu yatnaḥ kriyate | balavatsamādhiniṣpādanārthaṃ, Abhidharmakośavyākhyā 2.24, Wogihara 1989, p. 128). Some forms of abhidharma (Yogācāra, for example) do not consider samādhi as a mental factor that accompanies every moment of mind.
In a slightly less technical sense, samādhi can describe a number of different meditative states, including the highest such as the “samādhi that is like a diamond” (vajropamasamādhi).
If we understand the term samādhi as derived from sam + ā + dhā, the sense is something like to “place together” or “collect.” In the Tibetan rendering of this term, the ’dzin represents, we think, the root dhā and matches one of the senses of this root, “to hold” (dhāraṇa). The possible etymology of ting nge is debated and possibly a complex matter; if we accept the hypothesis that ting nge is related to gting, then the sense is probably akin to “profound” or “deep,” which may indicate taking sam + ā more or less as intensifiers.
The sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa commentary on the Mahāvyutpatti explains the term samādhi as referring to the instrument through which mind and mental states “get collected,” i.e., it is by the force of samādhi that the continuum of mind and mental states becomes collected on a single point of reference without getting distracted (samādhi zhes pa samādhiyante anena zhes bya ste | ting nge ’dzin gyi mthus sems dang sems las byung ba’i rgyud dmigs pa gcig la sdud cing mi g.yo bar ting nge ’dzin ’jog pas na ting nge ’dzin zhes bya).