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མུན་གྱི་ནགས་ཚལ་གྱི་སྒོ།

Entry into the Gloomy Forest
Entry into the Gloomy Forest

Tamovanamukha
མུན་གྱི་ནགས་ཚལ་གྱི་སྒོ་ཞེས་བྱ་བའི་མདོ།
mun gyi nags tshal gyi sgo zhes bya ba’i mdo
The Sūtra “Entry into the Gloomy Forest”
Tamovanamukha­nāma­sūtra
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Toh 314

Degé Kangyur, vol. 72 (mdo sde, sa), folios 163.b–169.a

Translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha

First published 2022
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co.

Table of Contents

ti. Title
im. Imprint
co. Contents
s. Summary
ac. Acknowledgements
i. Introduction
tr. The Translation
+ 2 sections- 2 sections
1. Entry into the Gloomy Forest
c. Colophon
n. Notes
b. Bibliography
+ 2 sections- 2 sections
· Tibetan Texts:
· Secondary Sources
g. Glossary

s.

Summary

s.­1

Entry into the Gloomy Forest tells the story of the eminent brahmin Pradarśa, who is converted to Buddhism upon receiving teachings from the Buddha and goes on to establish a Buddhist community in the Gloomy Forest. The text describes the exceptional circumstances of Pradarśa’s birth, his going forth as a monk, and the miraculous founding of the monastic community in the Gloomy Forest. This is followed by the Buddha’s account of the deeds and aspirations undertaken by Pradarśa in his previous lives that have resulted in the auspicious circumstances of his present life.


ac.

Acknowledgements

ac.­1

Translated by the Dharmachakra Translation Committee under the supervision of Chokyi Nyima Rinpoche. Ryan Conlon prepared the translation and introduction. Andreas Doctor compared the English translation with the original Tibetan and edited the text.

The translation was completed under the patronage and supervision of 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha.



i.

Introduction

i.­1

Entry into the Gloomy Forest is an account of the extraordinary life of the brahmin Pradarśa, his conversion to Buddhism, and his founding of a monastic community in the Gloomy Forest, a place, located in present-day Punjab, which we can identify as the Tamasāvana Monastery. The text describes the exceptional circumstances surrounding Pradarśa’s birth and going forth as a monk, the miraculous founding of the Gloomy Forest monastic settlement, and the Buddha’s account of Pradarśa’s deeds and prayers in his previous lives that led to his present circumstances. Although the sūtra does not explicitly identify itself as a “past life account” (Skt. avadāna), it shares many of the narrative tropes typical of this genre. Most notably, it illustrates how past existences shape present ones through the power of former deeds and aspirations. At the sūtra’s conclusion, the Buddha teaches that the results of actions are unfailing and that one should therefore strive to exclusively perform deeds that are wholesome. The main objective of the scripture, however, appears to be to provide an account of the founding of a particular Buddhist community. The theme of religious conversion to Buddhism runs through this text, starting with the conversions of Pradarśa and his fellow brahmins and culminating with the conversions of myriad gods and other nonhuman beings.

i.­2

The origins of this sūtra and its Tibetan translation are rather opaque. The sūtra is not listed, at least in its current form, among the texts of the two imperial inventories of Tibetan translations from the early ninth century, though Butön Rinchen Drup (Tib. bu ston rin chen grub, 1290–1364) includes it in his index of Tibetan translations, which he compiled in the early fourteenth century.1 The Tibetan text’s lack of a translator’s colophon is noted in several later indices, but we have yet to come across any textual hints as to who the translator(s) may have been. As for the sūtra itself, it clearly belongs to the avadāna genre, and there may well be parallel texts somewhere in this vast body of literature (a significant portion of which remains unpublished). Further research may determine such links.

i.­3

There are notable differences between the sūtra’s colophons in the Stok Palace and Degé Kangyurs, and both furnish some clues about the history of the text. The Stok Palace colophon reads, “I have edited the text as best I can, comparing it with multiple manuscripts. May the Śākya teachings flourish!” This comment suggests that the editor may have refrained from naming a translator because he was basing his finalized version on multiple Tibetan translations (perhaps themselves based on different Indic witnesses) by different translators.

i.­4

The Degé colophon, by contrast, offers more information about the sūtra’s contents and origin. The colophon can be translated, somewhat tentatively, as follows: “From the ten-thousand-lined Sūtra of the Garland of the Northern Range, this is a description of Mount Uśīra, which is the northern border mountain of the Jālandhara region.”2 We are presently unable to match the larger sūtra referred to here with any surviving text. It seems reasonable, however, to assume that if such a text existed, it may well have been a collection of narrative literature related to Buddhist communities in the northern regions of India. While the sūtra translated here also identifies the Gloomy Forest with Mount Uśīra,3 it is only the colophon that states that the forest is in the region of Jālandhara (modern-day Jalandhar of the Punjab region). The sūtra’s connection with India’s northwest is further solidified by the text’s statement that the monk Pradarśa was born in the country (Skt. janapada) of Trigarta (Tib. ngam grog gsum po), a region well attested throughout Indian Buddhist literature as well as epic, puranic, and even grammatical literature.

i.­5

Taking the available evidence into account, we can confidently identify the Gloomy Forest as the Tamasāvana.4 The Tamasāvana finds mention in the Chapter on Medicines (Bhaiṣajyavastu)5 of the Mūla­sarvāstivāda Vinaya, in which the Buddha, accompanied by Vajrapāṇi, flies through the sky to visit the northwest region. He first arrives at Mount Uśīra, which he predicts will become the Tamasāvana, a great center for the Buddhist Dharma, some one hundred years after his passing into nirvāṇa. The forest is also briefly mentioned in the Aśokāvadāna6 when King Aśoka invites monks from every corner of India to a quinquennial festival (Skt. pañcavārṣika). Furthermore, the forest is likely alluded to in Kṣemendra’s poetic telling of the Gopālāvadāna,7 in which the Buddha visits a forest once inhabited by many buddhas and worthy ones of the past and then bestows his hair and fingernails on a hunter who makes a shrine (Skt. caitya) to house them.

i.­6

Apart from the sūtra presented here, the most detailed account of the Tamasāvana is found in the travelogues of the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang (602–64), who describes it as a hill monastery with some three hundred monks located one hundred li8 southeast of Jālandhara. He further identifies it as a seat of the Sarvāstivāda school and the place where Kātyāyanīputra composed an important Abhidharma treatise three hundred years after the Buddha’s nirvāṇa. He adds that the region was also blessed by buddhas and worthy ones of the past and featured many caves.9 Xuanzang’s description is generally consonant with the characteristics of the Tamasāvana found in the present sūtra.

i.­7

Our translation of the sūtra follows the text as transmitted in the Tibetan Kangyurs since, to the best of our knowledge, no other source for this text is presently available. In producing this English translation, we have based our work on the Degé xylograph while consulting the Comparative Edition (Tib. dpe bsdur ma) and the Stok Palace manuscript for variant renderings in the case of problematic readings.


The Sūtra
Entry into the Gloomy Forest

1.

The Translation

[F.163.b]


1.­1

Homage to all buddhas and bodhisattvas!


Thus did I hear at one time. The Blessed One was staying in Śrāvastī at Jeta Grove, in the garden of Anāthapiṇḍada. At that time there was a brahmin named Kambala from a mountain village in the country known as Trigarta. Desiring a son for himself and his kinsmen, Kambala undertook austerities at a place called Brahmin’s Flat Stone. [F.164.a] After praying to one hundred thousand gods for a son, he eventually had a boy whom he called Pradarśa. To his brother was born another boy, who was called Nanda. On the very day Pradarśa was born, five hundred sons were born to five hundred brahmins. As they gradually grew older, Pradarśa and the five hundred other boys trained together in the traditional subjects of learning. Soon Pradarśa and the others attained mastery and dexterity in all fields of learning, and they obtained a hundred thousand exceptional enjoyments due to their perfect accumulations of merit.

1.­2

At that time, a brahmin youth arrived from the Middle Country and encountered the boys. Welcoming him, the boys struck up a conversation and asked, “So, where have you arrived from?”

1.­3

“I’m from the Middle Country,” he replied. “There we have six great cities, and in them we have eighteen teachers who are experts in the six correct forms of knowledge and who can lecture without any reticence on the six activities of a brahmin.10 There is also a river there. Additionally, there is someone with a great amount of merit who is virtuous and glorious and who knows everything about the world‍—he is the blessed Buddha.”

1.­4

As soon as Pradarśa heard this, his hair bristled and his mind became overjoyed. Thinking that he must go there, he approached his father and announced, “Father, I will go to the Middle Country. I will defeat those with heretical views and debate those regarded as experts.” His father granted him permission.

1.­5

Pradarśa possessed a majestic presence due to the great merit resulting from generosity, and he was exceedingly generous toward all beings. He was a person protected by the gods. Accordingly, the gods approached him and went ahead to announce, “You must worship the great Pradarśa! It will bring you great results in the form of many benefits!” [F.164.b]

1.­6

In turn, with gods and humans worshiping him, Pradarśa arrived at Śrāvastī. Having recuperated11 from the fatigue of his journey, he went to where the Blessed One was dwelling and, bowing his head at the feet of the Blessed One, took his place to one side.

1.­7

The Blessed One then taught the Dharma to Pradarśa and the rest of the assembly. All five hundred members of the assembly12 had their clinging to false views undermined and destroyed, and seeing the truth, they went forth and took up monkhood on the spot. Apart from Ānanda,13 they all vanquished their mental afflictions and became worthy ones. A multitude of other people also came to understand the Dharma.

1.­8

Because they had been observing the generous14 Pradarśa, the gods and others also arrived in the assembly. Upon their arrival, the Blessed One said to the monks, “Monks, among my monks and the hearers who are monks‍—however they may be worshiped by gods and humans‍—the monk Pradarśa is the supreme object of worship by gods and humans!”

1.­9

Immediately thereupon, Brahmā, the lord of the Sahā world; Śakra, chief of the gods; the Four Guardians of the World; the twenty-eight great yakṣa generals; the king of gandharvas; the general of the kumbhāṇḍas; and others departed from their respective abodes and arrived before the venerable great Pradarśa.

1.­10

Taking their places to one side, they faced Pradarśa, joined their hands, and said, “Honorable great Pradarśa! There is an abode that was visited and inhabited by previous blessed, perfect buddhas. It was an abode for solitary buddhas, a place for those devoid of desire, and an abode for sages. Ninety-one eons ago, the perfect Buddha Vipaśyin, having ascertained the nature of things, appeared in the world. [F.165.a] At that time, there was a monk named Shining, who was the most highly revered by gods and humans. He also resided in this place. On the northern border of the Middle Country, there was Mount Conch Spire, so called because on it grew grass that resembled the spire of a conch.15 Nearby was the Eni Forest,16 so called because the nāga lady Eni resided therein. In that forest there were caves around which trumpet flower trees grew, and so they were called Pāṭalī Caves. It was there that the blessed, perfect Buddha Vipaśyin arrived and resided along with his retinue of eighty thousand worthy ones. The monk Shining was also there. Then the Blessed One and his retinue gradually passed into nirvāṇa. Once his teaching had disappeared, seventy thousand solitary buddhas who were endowed with the six forms of superknowledge arrived and resided together. When those solitary buddhas had also passed into nirvāṇa, sixty thousand sages who were endowed with the five forms of superknowledge came to inhabit that same place.

1.­11

“Honorable great Pradarśa, thereafter, sixty-one eons ago, the blessed, perfect Buddha Śikhin appeared in the world. His monk named Luminosity, who was the most highly revered by gods and humans, also resided in that very place. Because the bordering mountain had rohita grass growing on it,17 it was called Mount Rohita. The forest was called Unclothed Forest because the nāga lady Unclothed resided there. Because parrot trees grew nearby, the caves were called Parrot Tree Caves. It was there that the perfect Buddha Śikhin, along with his retinue of seventy thousand worthy ones, arrived and resided together. They too passed into nirvāṇa, and the teaching disappeared. Then, sixty thousand solitary buddhas [F.165.b] arrived and resided in that place. When those solitary buddhas had also passed into nirvāṇa, fifty thousand sages who were endowed with the five forms of superknowledge came to inhabit that same place.

1.­12

“Honorable great Pradarśa, thereafter, thirty-one eons ago, the perfect Buddha Viśvabhū appeared in the world. His monk named Shining Forth Dharma, who was the most highly revered by gods and humans, also resided in that very place. Because the bordering mountain had bhasabha18 grass growing on it, it was called Mount Bhasabha. The forest was called Rock Forest because the nāga lady Rock resided there. Because pipal trees grew nearby, the caves were called Pipal Tree Caves. It was there that the perfect Buddha Viśvabhū, along with his retinue of sixty thousand worthy ones, arrived and resided together. They too passed into nirvāṇa, and the teaching disappeared. Then, fifty thousand solitary buddhas also arrived and resided there. When those solitary buddhas had also passed into nirvāṇa, forty thousand sages who were endowed with the five forms of superknowledge came to inhabit the place.

1.­13

“Here, honorable great Pradarśa, during this very Excellent Eon when the lifespan of humans was forty thousand years, the perfect Buddha Krakucchanda appeared in the world. His monk named Dharma Endowed, who was the most highly revered by gods and humans, also resided in that very place. Because the bordering mountain had kauśika grass growing on it,19 it was called Mount Kauśika. The forest was called Cloud Forest because a nāga lady named Cloud resided there. Because the cluster fig tree grew nearby, the caves were called Cluster Fig Caves. It was there that the perfect Buddha Krakucchanda, along with his retinue of fifty thousand worthy ones, arrived and resided together. They too passed into nirvāṇa, and thirty thousand sages who were endowed with the five forms of superknowledge [F.166.a] came to inhabit the place.20

1.­14

“Here, honorable great Pradarśa, during this very Excellent Eon when the lifespan of humans was thirty thousand years, the perfect Buddha Kanakamuni appeared in the world. His monk named Uplifted by Dharma, who was the most highly revered by gods and humans, also resided in that very place. Because the bordering mountain had green leafy grass growing on it, it was called Mount Leafy Green. The forest was called Drop Forest because the nāga lady named Drop resided there. Because elephant trees grew nearby, the caves were called Elephant Tree Caves. It was there that the perfect Buddha Kanakamuni, along with his retinue of forty thousand worthy ones, arrived and resided together. They too passed into nirvāṇa, and the teaching disappeared. Then, thirty thousand solitary buddhas arrived and resided there. When those solitary buddhas had also passed into nirvāṇa, twenty thousand sages who were endowed with the five forms of superknowledge came to inhabit that same place.

1.­15

“Here, honorable great Pradarśa, during this very Excellent Eon when the lifespan of humans was twenty thousand years, the perfect Buddha Kāśyapa appeared in the world. His monk named Śeḍoka, who was the most highly revered by gods and humans, also resided in that very place. Because the bordering mountain had a type of grass named moon growing on it, it was called Mount Moon. The forest was called Victorious Forest because the nāga lady Victorious resided there. Because black plum trees grew nearby, the caves were called Black Plum Caves. It was there that the perfect Buddha Kāśyapa, along with his retinue of twenty thousand worthy ones, arrived and resided together. They too passed into nirvāṇa, and the teaching disappeared. Then, fifteen thousand solitary buddhas arrived and resided there. When those solitary buddhas had also passed into nirvāṇa, ten thousand sages who were endowed with the five forms of superknowledge [F.166.b] came to inhabit the place.

1.­16

“Now, honorable great Pradarśa, during this very Excellent Eon when the lifespan of humans is one hundred years, the perfect Buddha Śākyamuni has appeared in the world. You, noble and great Pradarśa, the monk most highly revered by gods and humans, will reside in that very place. Because the bordering mountain has vetiver grass growing on it, it is called Mount Uśīra. The forest is called Gloomy Forest because the nāga lady Gloom resides there. Because mango trees grow nearby, the caves are called Mango Caves. Honorable great Pradarśa, it would be good if you, thinking compassionately, were to reside on that very Mount Uśīra.”

1.­17

At this point Brahmā, Śakra who is chief of the gods, and the Guardians of the World bowed at the feet of the great elder. Joining their hands together, they respectfully addressed him, “O compassionate one, this forest is a place to which you should come and reside. Please let us be your disciples, and please accept others as well. This forest is praiseworthy and excellent. Please consider the water and extract it!”21

1.­18

Then the eight yakṣa generals‍—namely, Siṅgala, Dharma Protector, Successful, Victorious, Bull Ear, Jewel Ear, Dharma Endowed, and Uplifted by Dharma‍—also bowed at the feet of the great elder. Joining their hands together, they respectfully addressed him: “O compassionate one, this forest is a place to which you should come and reside. Please let us be your disciples, and please accept others as well. This forest is praiseworthy and excellent. Please consider the water and extract it!”

1.­19

Then the eight great yakṣīs‍—namely, Aśiḍi, Many Sons, Hanging Down, [F.167.a] Fully Hanging, Terrible Lady, Fierce Lady, Small Club Holder, and Sky Dweller‍—also bowed at the feet of the great elder. Joining their hands together, they respectfully addressed him: “O compassionate one, this forest is a place to which you should come and reside. Please let us be your disciples, and please accept others as well. This forest is praiseworthy and excellent. Please consider the water and extract it!”

1.­20

Similarly, the eight great nāgas‍—namely, Tawny, Scent, Watery, Wrathful, Staircase to Heaven, Staircase to a Vase, Nearby Nāga, and Oḍasuta‍—also bowed at the feet of the great elder. Joining their hands together, they respectfully addressed him: “O compassionate one, this forest is a place to which you should come and reside. Please let us be your disciples, and please accept others as well. This forest is praiseworthy and excellent. Please consider the water and extract it!”

1.­21

Similarly, the eight nāga ladies‍—namely, Darkness, Eager to Leave, Seer, Cool, Load Carrying, Speech Strewing, Universal Army, and Gandharva Lady‍—also bowed at the feet of the great elder. Joining their hands together, they respectfully addressed him: “O compassionate one, this forest is a place to which you should come and reside. Please let us be your disciples, and please accept others as well. This forest is praiseworthy and excellent. Please consider the water and extract it!”

1.­22

The venerable great Pradarśa, by remaining quiet, consented to this request. [F.167.b] And those gods, asuras, garuḍas, kinnaras, gandharvas, mahoragas, and so on happily rejoiced, as they knew that the venerable great Pradarśa had consented to the request by remaining quiet. The venerable great Pradarśa then gazed intently at the Teacher’s face and left for the Gloomy Forest. Arriving there, he stood in the open air and struck the gaṇḍī, the sound of which was heard by the monks as it covered the whole of Jambudvīpa. They began to think, “This sound has come from the Gloomy Forest.” This being an abode that was also inhabited by the previous perfect buddhas, by the solitary buddhas, by those without desire, and by the sages, the monks knew, understood, and saw that now the sound could only be from the honorable great Pradarśa. Eighteen thousand worthy ones then traveled to the Gloomy Forest to undertake the summer rains retreat.

1.­23

Brahmā, the chief of the gods, and the Guardians of the World brought the hair and nails of the Thus-Gone One. Having arrived, they erected a reliquary containing the hair and nails. They also constructed a monastery, which was given the name Vajra Monastery. Brahmā, the lord of the Sahā world, and the Four Guardians of the World also built their own individual monasteries, and the gods resided in them for the first year. For a full year, Śakra, chief of the gods, personally offered essential supplies such as monks’ robes. Apsarases such as Blissful also offered each monk cotton cloth for their monks’ robes.

1.­24

Then the venerable great Pradarśa, situated in the large assembly hall and surrounded by a retinue of gods, said, “So that this place may be habitable for a long time to come and contain cities for gods and humans, I have taught the Dharma to people such as the kṣatriya known as Tough Man, [F.168.a] and they have become pleased and devoted. The great king Tough Man has gone for refuge to the Three Jewels, and others have also become devotees. Work has been done on five hundred caves. Five hundred sages endowed with the five forms of superknowledge have also gone forth and achieved the realization of a worthy one. In this area, there is also a person who is an expert in the religion of the brahmins. I defeated him in debate, and he has gone forth. He too has achieved the realization of a worthy one.”22

1.­25

Thus, it became well known in the palaces of kings and in the cities and towns that the venerable great Pradarśa, along with eighty thousand worthy ones, resided in the Gloomy Forest. Every day, people such as King Tough Man offered buttermilk to the noble saṅgha. The nonhumans offered ghee, and others, being happy and inspired, were pleased and rejoiced and offered their service. Similarly, the nāgas, being happy and pleased, offered meals of eighteen different varieties.

1.­26

Other beings also developed a similar intention. For example, the kṣatriyas and ministers cooperated to establish a park that contained many beautiful flowering and fruit-bearing trees, such as the mango tree, the trumpet flower tree, the cutch, the Indian banyan, the pipal tree, the three myrobalans, the campaka tree, the uduka tree,23 the licorice tree, the bel fruit tree, the braho tree,24 the black plum tree, the duna tree,25 and the banana plant. There were also flowers such as arabian jasmine, downy jasmine, and common jasmine. The rulers and ministers then offered this park to the saṅgha so that the monks would be able to live comfortably and have an abode conducive to wholesome pursuits.

1.­27

Later, however, the monks came to have doubts, and so they asked the blessed Buddha, who quells all doubts, [F.168.b] “What action did the honorable and venerable Pradarśa previously perform so that now, as this action ripens, he is rich, wealthy, and born in a prosperous lineage, so that he is handsome and the one most highly revered by gods and humans, and so that he is endowed with a great amount of merit? Please make this known to us!”

1.­28

The Blessed One responded, “O monks, ninety-one eons ago, the perfect Buddha Vipaśyin appeared in the world. He was perfect in terms of wisdom and conduct, a well-gone one, a knower of the world, a charioteer for beings, an unsurpassed being, a teacher of gods and humans, and a blessed buddha. He resided in King Bandhumat’s palace. At that time, a certain rich man from the caste of plasterers built a monastery for Vipaśyin. Landscaping it beautifully with flowers and fruit-bearing trees, the man offered the monastery, which was enveloped by pleasing scents, to Vipaśyin. He also went forth under the teaching of that very Teacher. After the perfect Buddha Vipaśyin had passed into nirvāṇa, this monk erected a precious pillar at the foundation of the reliquary that held the Buddha’s relics. The people in the retinue of this monk, who had gone forth from the caste of plasterers, rejoiced and felt admiration. Then they made the following aspiration: ‘Just as you admire the Teacher, may we too have faith and admiration. May we act according to the words of the Teacher and please him. May we not displease him.’

1.­29

“O monks, what do you think? At that time, on that occasion, the person who was the plasterer is none other than the venerable great Pradarśa. Similarly, those other beings are these gods and humans present here, and now too he is guiding them.

1.­30

“Moreover, he went forth under the teaching of the Blessed Kāśyapa, and his preceptor was the one who was the one most highly revered by gods and humans. He made the following aspiration: ‘Just as my preceptor is the one most highly revered by gods and humans, may I too, under the teaching of the perfect Buddha Śākyamuni, [F.169.a] become the one most highly revered by gods and humans.’ For that reason, he has now become the one most highly revered by gods and humans.

1.­31

“Therefore, O monks, the ripening of thoroughly black deeds is thoroughly black. The ripening of truly white deeds is white. The ripening of mixed deeds is mixed. For that reason, O monks, abandon truly black deeds and mixed deeds. You must carry out those deeds that are truly white. Monks, you should train in this way!”

1.­32

When the Blessed One had said this, the monks contemplated the Blessed One’s speech and were pleased.

1.­33

This completes the sūtra “Entry into the Gloomy Forest.”


c.

Colophon

c.­1

From the ten-thousand-lined Sūtra of the Garland of the Northern Range, this is a description of Mount Uśīra, which is the northern border mountain of the Jālandhara region.


n.

Notes

n.­1
bde bar gshegs pa’i bstan pa’i gsal byed chos kyi ’byung gnas gsung rab rin po che’i mdzod, p. 920.6.
n.­2
The Tibetan text reads za len dra, which, considering the text’s references to the Tamasāvana Monastery and Trigarta, almost certainly refers to Jālandhara, but we cannot confidently explain whether this rendering is intentional or a corruption. Although the colophon could be read as meaning “the mountain on the northern border of Jālandhara,” such an interpretation is less likely because this and other sūtras state that Mount Uśīra is a border mountain of Madhyadeśa, and the travel logs of Xuanzang state that Jālandhara is to the northwest of Tamasāvana.
n.­3
Mount Uśīra is variously referred to (or written) as Uśīragiri or Uśīnaragiri in Sanskrit and Usīraddhaja in Pāli. Its orthography in Tibetan translations is not consistent. The mountain is also mentioned in chapter 49 of the Vajraḍāka­tantra (Toh 370, folio 112.b) and in the Āṭānāṭīyamahā­sūtra (Toh 656, folio 152.b).
n.­4
The orthography tamasāvana is often, and perhaps more convincingly, given as tāmasavana. Nevertheless, we find tamasāvana in Dutt’s edition (1947, p. 3) of the Mūla­sarvāstivāda Vinayavastu (Toh 1) and in Cowell and Neil’s edition (1886, p. 399) of the Divyāvadāna. The Tibetan translation of the sūtra presented here offers variously tamo, tama, and tamasa as alternatives, all of which are likely corruptions.
n.­5
See Bhaiṣajyavastu Translation Team, trans., The Chapter on Medicines, Toh 1-6 (84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha), 7.215. This passage is not presently published in Sanskrit.
n.­6
See avadāna 27 in Cowell and Neil 1886, p. 399. For an English translation, see Strong 1989 (note that Strong mistranslates the relevant passage on p. 259). There does not appear to be a canonical Tibetan translation of this passage.
n.­7
This is pointed out by Demiéville 1924, p. 37. See Kṣemendra’s Bodhisattvāvadāna­kalpalatā, Toh 4155, ch. 56, Gopālāvadāna, in Das and Vidyābhūṣaṇa 1888–1918, pp. 136–45.
n.­8
A traditional Chinese measure of distance, today standardized at 500 meters (1,640 feet).
n.­9
See the translation and analysis in Waters 1904, p. 295ff.
n.­10
Here we emend the text from ltas kyi bya ba drug to las kyi bya ba drug. Although there are many possible *ṣaṭkarmans, we conjecture that the six activities of a brahmin are the most contextually appropriate.
n.­11
Our translation of “recuperated” is somewhat tentative. The Tibetan reads rta bstis.
n.­12
Although the text is not explicit, it appears reasonable to assume that Pradarśa’s five hundred childhood friends had traveled with him and comprise the remainder of the assembly referred to here.
n.­13
Here the text in fact reads dga’ bo, which typically translates the name Nanda. Nanda could refer to the disciple of the Buddha who was also his half-brother, or it could refer to the above-mentioned cousin of Pradarśa. Either way, the remark is, for us, cryptic. We conjecture, therefore, that the text should read kun dga’ bo and may refer to the narrative that Ānanda, who was present in the majority of the Buddha’s assemblies, did not achieve the state of being a worthy one until after the Buddha had passed into nirvāṇa.
n.­14
Here we follow Stok: gtong pa (“generous”). Degé: ston pa (“teacher”). Peking Yongle and Peking Kangxi: stong pa (“empty”).
n.­15
The Sanskrit name may be śaṅkhanābha, a word that also appears to refer, although with very limited attestation, to a poisonous root (see Slouber 2017, 167).
n.­16
Here we follow Choné and Peking Kangxi: e ni. Degé: ai ni.
n.­17
It is unclear what type of grass or plant this is. One possibility is rohiṇī, which, according to Meulenbeld (1974, p. 596), may refer to a number of plants and herbs. Another is rohītaka, which although a tree and not a plant, refers to Andersonia rohituka and, according to Monier-Williams (1899, p. 890), is also the name of a mountain that is “according to some a stronghold on the borders of Multan.”
n.­18
It is unclear what bhasabha grass may be.
n.­19
It is unclear what kind of grass kauśika might refer to. Kuśika, the word from which the former is possibly derived, refers to a number of trees.
n.­20
Here none of the witnesses that we have consulted mention solitary buddhas. Although this appears to be a transmission error as it contradicts the otherwise unchanging structure of the text, we have chosen not to emend in this case since the Tibetan sources appear to be in total agreement.
n.­21
Translation tentative. Tibetan reads chu ni gzigs par dbyung bar ’tshal lo. One possibility, assuming the text is correct, is that the gods and other beings are exhorting Pradarśa to extract, presumably by the use of miraculous powers, the Gloomy Forest, which is presently submerged underwater. This is not an entirely improbable possibility since a number of similar “founding myths” exist for other regions in which a Buddhist community was newly established, such as Kashmir, Khotan, and Nepal. For a detailed study of the topic, see Deeg 2016. This interpretation appears less likely, however, in light of the fact that the Gloomy Forest is said to be located on a mountain and that following this passage no further mention is made of water or its drainage.
n.­22
It is not clear when Pradarśa’s speech ends. It may continue for a few more paragraphs.
n.­23
We are unable to identify the tree to which this refers.
n.­24
We cannot be certain which tree is being referred to here with the Tibetan ’bra ho’i shing. It is possibly the brahman tree, which is mentioned in the second chapter of the Hevajratantra, Toh 417 where commentators identify it as bastard teak (Butea monosperma, Skt. palāśa).
n.­25
We are unable to identify the tree to which this refers.

b.

Bibliography

Tibetan Texts:

mun gyi nags tshal gyi sgo (*Tamovanamukha). Toh 314, Degé Kangyur vol. 72 (mdo sde, sa), folios 163.b–169.a.

mun gyi nags tshal gyi sgo. bka’ ’gyur (dpe bsdur ma) [Comparative Edition of the Kangyur], krung go’i bod rig pa zhib ’jug ste gnas kyi bka’ bstan dpe sdur khang (The Tibetan Tripitaka Collation Bureau of the China Tibetology Research Center). 108 volumes. Beijing: krung go’i bod rig pa dpe skrun khang (China Tibetology Publishing House), 2006–9, vol. 72, pp. 491–506.

mun gyi nags tshal gyi sgo (*Dandavanamukha). Stok Palace Kangyur vol. 67 (mdo sde, ma), folios 404.b–413.a.

kye’i rdo rje’i rgyud (Hevajratantra). Toh 417, Degé Kangyur vol. 80 (rgyud, nga), folios 1.a–13.b.

rgyud gyi rgyal po chen po dpal rdo rje mkha’ ’gro (Vajraḍāka­tantra), Toh 370, Degé Kangyur vol. 78 (rgyud, kha): 1.b–125.a.

mdo chen po kun tu rgyu ba dang / kun tu rgyu ba ma yin pa dang mthun pa’i mdo (Āṭānāṭīyamahā­sūtra). Toh 656, Degé Kangyur vol. 91 (rgyud, ba), folios 149.b–162.b.

’dul ba gzhi (Vinayavastu), Toh 1, Degé Kangyur vols. 1–4 (’dul ba, ka–nga).

sman gyi gzhi (Bhaiṣajyavastu). Toh 1-6, Degé Kangyur vol. 1 (’dul ba, ka), folio 277.b–vol. 3 (’dul ba, ga), folio 50.a. English translation in Bhaiṣajyavastu Translation Team, trans. 2021.

Kṣemendra. byang chub sems dpa’i rtogs pa brjod pa dpag bsam gyi ’khri shing (Bodhisattvāvadāna­kalpalatā). Toh 4155, Degé Tengyur vol. 170–71 (skyes rabs, ke–khe), folios 1.b (ke)–329.a (khe). See Das and Vidyābhūṣaṇa 1888–1918.

Butön Rinchen Drup (bu ston rin chen grub). bde bar gshegs pa’i bstan pa’i gsal byed chos kyi ’byung gnas gsung rab rin po che’i mdzod. In The Collected Works of Bu-ston, edited by Lokesh Chandra, 633–1056. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture, 1965–71.

Secondary Sources

Bhaiṣajyavastu Translation Team, trans. The Chapter on Medicines (Bhaiṣajyavastu, Toh 1-6). 84000: Translating the Words of the Buddha, 2021.

Cowell, E. B., and R. A. Neil, eds. The Divyâvadâna: A Collection of Early Buddhist Legends London: Cambridge University Press, 1886.

Das, C. S., Hari Mohan Vidyābhūṣaṇa, and Satis Chandra Vidyābhūṣaṇa. Bodhisattvāvadāna­kalpalatā. Bibliotheca Indica 124. Calcutta: Baptist Mission Press, 1888–1918.

Deeg, Max. Miscellanae Nepalicae: Early Chinese Reports on Nepal; The Foundation Legend of Nepal in its Trans-Himalayan Context. Lumbini: Lumbini International Research Institute, 2016.

Demiéville, Paul. “Les Versions Chinoises du Milindapañha.” Bulletin de l’École française d’Extrême-Orient 24 (1924): 1–258.

Dutt, Nalinaksha. Gilgit Manuscripts, Vol. 3, Part 1. Srinagar: Research Department, 1947.

Meulenbeld, G. J. The Mādhavanidāna and Its Chief Commentary: Chapters 1–10. Leiden: Brill, 1974.

Monier-Williams, M. A Sanskrit–English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with Special Reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages. Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1899.

Pandanus Database of Plants. Accessed July 2020.

Slouber, Michael. Early Tantric Medicine: Snakebite, Mantras, and Healing in the Gāruḍa Tantras. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.

Strong, John. The Legend of King Aśoka: A Study and Translation of the Aśokāvadāna. 1984. Reprint, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1989.

Waters, Thomas. On Yuan Chwang’s Travels in India: 629–645 A.D. London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1904.


g.

Glossary

g.­1

Anāthapiṇḍada

  • mgon med zas sbyin
  • མགོན་མེད་ཟས་སྦྱིན།
  • Anāthapiṇḍada

An important benefactor of the Buddha who donated the Jeta Grove outside of Śrāvastī to the Buddhist community.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­1
  • g.­56

Links to further resources:

  • 39 related glossary entries
g.­2

Apsarases

  • lha’i bu mo
  • ལྷའི་བུ་མོ།
  • apsaras

A class of celestial female beings known for their great beauty.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­23

Links to further resources:

  • 17 related glossary entries
g.­3

Arabian jasmine

  • me tog ma li ka
  • མེ་ཏོག་མ་ལི་ཀ
  • mallikā

Jasminum sambac according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­26

Links to further resources:

  • 4 related glossary entries
g.­4

Aśiḍi

  • a shi Di
  • ཨ་ཤི་ཌི།
  • Aśiḍi

One of the eight great yakṣīs.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­19
  • g.­33
g.­5

Asura

  • lha ma yin
  • ལྷ་མ་ཡིན།
  • asura

A class of beings constantly in conflict with the gods.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­22

Links to further resources:

  • 106 related glossary entries
g.­6

Banana plant

  • chu shing
  • ཆུ་ཤིང་།
  • kadalī

Musa paradisiaca according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­26

Links to further resources:

  • 2 related glossary entries
g.­7

Bel fruit

  • bil ba
  • བིལ་བ།
  • bilva

Aegle mermelos, also known as Indian bael or wood apple.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­26

Links to further resources:

  • 2 related glossary entries
g.­8

Black plum

  • 'dzam bu
  • འཛམ་བུ།
  • jambū

Syzygium cumini according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­15
  • 1.­26

Links to further resources:

  • 2 related glossary entries
g.­9

Black Plum Caves

  • ’dzam bu’i phug
  • འཛམ་བུའི་ཕུག
  • —

Caves on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Kāśyapa.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­15
g.­10

Blissful

  • bde
  • བདེ།
  • —

Name of an apsaras.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­23
g.­11

Brahmā

  • tshangs pa
  • ཚངས་པ།
  • Brahmā

A high-ranking deity, presiding over a divine world where other beings consider him the creator; he is also considered to be the “Lord of the Sahā World” (our universe).

3 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­9
  • 1.­17
  • 1.­23

Links to further resources:

  • 125 related glossary entries
g.­12

Brahmin

  • bram ze
  • བྲམ་ཟེ།
  • brāhmaṇa

A member of the highest caste in Indian society, which is most closely associated with religious vocations.

7 passages contain this term:

  • s.­1
  • i.­1
  • 1.­1
  • 1.­2
  • 1.­3
  • 1.­24
  • n.­10

Links to further resources:

  • 25 related glossary entries
g.­13

Brahmin’s Flat Stone

  • bram ze’i rdo leb
  • བྲམ་ཟེའི་རྡོ་ལེབ།
  • —

A location in the country of Trigarta.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­1
g.­14

Bull Ear

  • glang rna
  • གླང་རྣ།
  • —

One of the eight yakṣa generals.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­18
  • g.­35
g.­15

Campaka tree

  • me tog tsam pa ka’i shing
  • མེ་ཏོག་ཙམ་པ་ཀའི་ཤིང་།
  • campaka

Michelia champaca according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­26

Links to further resources:

  • 6 related glossary entries
g.­16

Cloud

  • sprin
  • སྤྲིན།
  • —

A nāga lady from a previous time.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­13
g.­17

Cloud Forest

  • sprin gyi nags
  • སྤྲིན་གྱི་ནགས།
  • —

A forest on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Krakucchanda.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­13
g.­18

Cluster Fig Caves

  • u dum pA ra’i phug
  • ཨུ་དུམ་པཱ་རའི་ཕུག
  • —

Caves on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Krakucchanda.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­13
g.­19

Cluster fig tree

  • shing u dum ba ra
  • ཤིང་ཨུ་དུམ་བ་ར།
  • udumbara

Ficus Glomerata according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­13

Links to further resources:

  • 7 related glossary entries
g.­20

Common jasmine

  • dza hi ka
  • ཛ་ཧི་ཀ
  • jātī

Jasminum grandiflorum according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­26

Links to further resources:

  • 4 related glossary entries
g.­21

Cool

  • grang mo
  • གྲང་མོ།
  • —

One of the eight nāga ladies.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­21
  • g.­34
g.­22

Country

  • ljongs kyi skye bo
  • ལྗོངས་ཀྱི་སྐྱེ་བོ།
  • janapada

Large political formations, either republics or kingdoms, of ancient India.

4 passages contain this term:

  • i.­4
  • 1.­1
  • g.­13
  • g.­120
g.­23

Cutch

  • seng ldeng gi shing
  • སེང་ལྡེང་གི་ཤིང་།
  • khadira

Acaia catechu according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­26

Links to further resources:

  • 3 related glossary entries
g.­24

Darkness

  • mun
  • མུན།
  • —

One of the eight nāga ladies.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­21
  • g.­34
g.­25

Dharma Endowed

  • chos ldan
  • ཆོས་ལྡན།
  • —

A monk from a previous eon.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­13
g.­26

Dharma Endowed

  • chos ldan
  • ཆོས་ལྡན།
  • —

One of the eight yakṣa generals.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­18
  • g.­35
g.­27

Dharma Protector

  • chos skyong
  • ཆོས་སྐྱོང་།
  • —

One of the eight yakṣa generals.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­18
  • g.­35
g.­28

Downy jasmine

  • kun da
  • ཀུན་ད།
  • kunda

Jasminum multiflorum according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­26

Links to further resources:

  • 1 related glossary entry
g.­29

Drop

  • thig le
  • ཐིག་ལེ།
  • —

Name of a nāga lady of a former time.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­14
g.­30

Drop Forest

  • thig le’i nags
  • ཐིག་ལེའི་ནགས།
  • —

A forest on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Kanakamuni.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­14
g.­31

Eager to Leave

  • ’gro ’dod
  • འགྲོ་འདོད།
  • —

One of the eight nāga ladies.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­21
  • g.­34
g.­32

Eight great nāgas

  • klu chen po brgyad po
  • ཀླུ་ཆེན་པོ་བརྒྱད་པོ།
  • aṣṭamahānāga

This list of eight nāgas is probably unique to this sūtra. They are Tawny, Scent, Watery, Wrathful, Staircase to Heaven, Staircase to a Vase, Nearby Nāga, and Oḍasuta.

9 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­20
  • g.­84
  • g.­85
  • g.­97
  • g.­112
  • g.­113
  • g.­116
  • g.­134
  • g.­136
g.­33

Eight great yakṣīs

  • gnod sbyin ma chen mo brgyad
  • གནོད་སྦྱིན་མ་ཆེན་མོ་བརྒྱད།
  • aṣṭamahāyakṣī

This list of eight yakṣa ladies is probably unique to this sūtra. They are Aśiḍi, Many Sons, Hanging Down, Fully Hanging, Terrible, Fierce Lady, Small Club Holder, and Sky Dweller.

9 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­19
  • g.­4
  • g.­41
  • g.­44
  • g.­51
  • g.­73
  • g.­107
  • g.­108
  • g.­117
g.­34

Eight nāga ladies

  • klu mo brgyad po
  • ཀླུ་མོ་བརྒྱད་པོ།
  • aṣṭamahānāgī

This list of eight nāga ladies may be unique to this sūtra. They are Darkness, Eager to Leave, Seer, Cool, Load Carrying, Speech Strewing, Universal Army, and Gandharva Lady.

9 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­21
  • g.­21
  • g.­24
  • g.­31
  • g.­46
  • g.­68
  • g.­99
  • g.­110
  • g.­124
g.­35

Eight yakṣa generals

  • gnod sbyin gyi sde dpon brgyad po
  • གནོད་སྦྱིན་གྱི་སྡེ་དཔོན་བརྒྱད་པོ།
  • aṣṭa­yakṣa­senāpati

Lists of the generals of the yakṣas are frequent in Buddhist scripture. They can variously consist in five, eight, twelve, or twenty-eight yakṣas. The list of names given here appears to be unique to this sūtra. They are Siṅgala, Dharma Protector, Successful, Victorious, Bull Ear, Jewel Ear, Dharma Endowed, and Uplifted by Dharma.

9 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­18
  • g.­14
  • g.­26
  • g.­27
  • g.­57
  • g.­103
  • g.­114
  • g.­126
  • g.­130
g.­36

Elephant tree

  • ka pi ta
  • ཀ་པི་ཏ།
  • kapittha

Limonia acidissima according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­14

Links to further resources:

  • 2 related glossary entries
g.­37

Elephant Tree Caves

  • ka pi ta’i phug
  • ཀ་པི་ཏའི་ཕུག
  • —

Caves on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Kanakamuni.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­14
g.­38

Eni

  • ai ni
  • e ni
  • ཨཻ་ནི།
  • ཨེ་ནི།
  • —

Name of a nāga lady from a previous eon.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­10
g.­39

Eni Forest

  • ai ni’i nags
  • ཨཻ་ནིའི་ནགས།
  • —

A forest on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­10
g.­40

Excellent Eon

  • bskal pa bzang po
  • བསྐལ་པ་བཟང་པོ།
  • Bhadrakalpa

Name of the present eon, in which the Buddha Śākyamuni and other buddhas appear.

4 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­13
  • 1.­14
  • 1.­15
  • 1.­16

Links to further resources:

  • 15 related glossary entries
g.­41

Fierce Lady

  • gtum mo
  • གཏུམ་མོ།
  • —

One of the eight great yakṣīs.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­19
  • g.­33
g.­42

Five forms of superknowledge

  • mngon par shes pa lnga
  • མངོན་པར་ཤེས་པ་ལྔ།
  • pañcābhijñā

Presumably this list consists of the six forms of superknowledge without knowledge of the destruction of the defiled.

7 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­10
  • 1.­11
  • 1.­12
  • 1.­13
  • 1.­14
  • 1.­15
  • 1.­24

Links to further resources:

  • 30 related glossary entries
g.­43

Four Guardians of the World

  • ’jig rten skyong ba bzhi
  • འཇིག་རྟེན་སྐྱོང་བ་བཞི།
  • caturlokapāla

Vaiśravaṇa (Kubera), Virūḍhaka, Dhṛtarāṣṭra, and Virūpākṣa.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­9
  • 1.­23

Links to further resources:

  • 9 related glossary entries
g.­44

Fully Hanging

  • rab tu ’phyang ma
  • རབ་ཏུ་འཕྱང་མ།
  • —

One of the eight great yakṣīs.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­19
  • g.­33
g.­45

Gandharva

  • dri za
  • དྲི་ཟ།
  • gandharva

A class of generally benevolent beings who inhabit the sky and are most renowned as celestial musicians.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­22

Links to further resources:

  • 114 related glossary entries
g.­46

Gandharva Lady

  • dri za mo
  • དྲི་ཟ་མོ།
  • —

One of the eight nāga ladies.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­21
  • g.­34
g.­47

Gaṇḍī

  • gaN DI
  • གཎ་ཌཱི།
  • gaṇḍī

An elongated, shoulder-held wooden bar (or beam) struck with a wooden stick to call the monastic community to assembly.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­22

Links to further resources:

  • 5 related glossary entries
g.­48

Garuḍa

  • nam mkha’ lding
  • ནམ་མཁའ་ལྡིང་།
  • garuḍa

A class of beings described as birds with gigantic wingspans. They appear throughout classical Indian literature and are traditionally considered the enemies of nāgas.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­22

Links to further resources:

  • 79 related glossary entries
g.­49

Gloom

  • mun pa
  • མུན་པ།
  • —

The name of a nāga lady.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­16
g.­50

Gloomy Forest

  • mun gyi nags tshal
  • ta ma sa'i nags
  • mun gyi nags
  • མུན་གྱི་ནགས་ཚལ།
  • ཏ་མ་སའི་ནགས།
  • མུན་གྱི་ནགས།
  • Tamasāvana

A forest located in modern-day Punjab where a community of Buddhist monks flourished.

10 passages contain this term:

  • s.­1
  • i.­1
  • i.­4
  • i.­5
  • 1.­16
  • 1.­22
  • 1.­25
  • n.­21
  • g.­71
  • g.­91

Links to further resources:

  • 1 related glossary entry
g.­51

Hanging Down

  • ’phyang ma
  • འཕྱང་མ།
  • —

One of the eight great yakṣīs.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­19
  • g.­33
g.­52

Hearer

  • nyan thos
  • ཉན་ཐོས།
  • śrāvaka

Primarily referring to those disciples of the Buddha who aspire to attain the state of an arhat by seeking self-liberation. It is usually defined as “those who hear the teaching from the Buddha and make it heard by others.”

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­8
  • g.­135

Links to further resources:

  • 102 related glossary entries
g.­53

Indian banyan

  • n+ya gro d+ha
  • ནྱ་གྲོ་དྷ།
  • nyagrodha

Ficus benghalensis according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­26

Links to further resources:

  • 4 related glossary entries
g.­54

Jālandhara

  • za len dra
  • dzA lan dha ra
  • ཟ་ལེན་དྲ།
  • ཛཱ་ལན་དྷ་ར།
  • Jālandhara

Modern-day Jalandhar of the Punjab region.

5 passages contain this term:

  • i.­4
  • i.­6
  • c.­1
  • n.­2
  • g.­119
g.­55

Jambudvīpa

  • ’dzam bu’i gling
  • འཛམ་བུའི་གླིང་།
  • Jambudvīpa

The continent to the south of Mount Sumeru, according to Abhidharma cosmology.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­22

Links to further resources:

  • 79 related glossary entries
g.­56

Jeta Grove

  • rgyal bu rgyal byed kyi tshal
  • རྒྱལ་བུ་རྒྱལ་བྱེད་ཀྱི་ཚལ།
  • Jetavana

A park in Śrāvastī, the capital of Kośala in northern India. It was owned by Prince Jeta, from whom Anāthapiṇḍada bought it in order to offer it to the Buddha. It was a place where the Buddha and his community of monks stayed during the monsoon season, and therefore eventually became the first Buddhist monastery. It is the setting for many of the Buddha’s discourses.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­1
  • g.­1

Links to further resources:

  • 52 related glossary entries
g.­57

Jewel Ear

  • dbyig rna
  • དབྱིག་རྣ།
  • —

One of the eight yakṣa generals.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­18
  • g.­35
g.­58

Kambala

  • la ba can
  • ལ་བ་ཅན།
  • Kambala

The name of the venerable Pradarśa’s father.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­1
g.­59

Kanakamuni

  • ser thub
  • སེར་ཐུབ།
  • Kanakamuni

A former buddha in this eon.

4 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­14
  • g.­30
  • g.­37
  • g.­79

Links to further resources:

  • 21 related glossary entries
g.­60

Kāśyapa

  • ’od srung
  • འོད་སྲུང་།
  • Kāśyapa

A former buddha of this eon.

5 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­15
  • 1.­30
  • g.­9
  • g.­80
  • g.­131

Links to further resources:

  • 28 related glossary entries
g.­61

King Bandhumat

  • rgyal po gnyen ldan
  • རྒྱལ་པོ་གཉེན་ལྡན།
  • Bandhumat

A king during the life of the previous Buddha Vipaśyin.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­28

Links to further resources:

  • 3 related glossary entries
g.­62

King of gandharvas

  • dri za’i rgyal po
  • དྲི་ཟའི་རྒྱལ་པོ།
  • gandharvarāja

Identified as Citraratha throughout mythological literature.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­9
g.­63

Kinnara

  • mi’am ci
  • མིའམ་ཅི།
  • kinnara

A class of beings that are half-human and half-animal, typically with animal heads atop human bodies. The term literally means “Is that human?” They are specifically known for having musical voices.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­22

Links to further resources:

  • 79 related glossary entries
g.­64

Krakucchanda

  • log par dad sel
  • ལོག་པར་དད་སེལ།
  • Krakucchanda

A former buddha of this eon.

4 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­13
  • g.­17
  • g.­18
  • g.­78

Links to further resources:

  • 25 related glossary entries
g.­65

Kṣatriya

  • rgyal rigs
  • རྒྱལ་རིགས།
  • kṣatriya

One of the four classes (Skt. varṇas) of ancient Indian society, responsible for political and military affairs.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­24
  • 1.­26

Links to further resources:

  • 34 related glossary entries
g.­66

Kumbhāṇḍa

  • grul bum
  • གྲུལ་བུམ།
  • kumbhāṇḍa

A type of supernatural being commonly mentioned along with yakṣas, rākṣasas, piśācas, and so on.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­9

Links to further resources:

  • 30 related glossary entries
g.­67

Licorice tree

  • ma du ka
  • མ་དུ་ཀ
  • madhuka

Glycyrrhiza glabra according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­26
g.­68

Load Carrying

  • khur drang mo
  • ཁུར་དྲང་མོ།
  • —

One of the eight nāga ladies.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­21
  • g.­34
g.­69

Luminosity

  • rab gsal
  • རབ་གསལ།
  • —

Name of a monk from a previous eon.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­11
g.­70

Mahoraga

  • lto ’phye chen po
  • ལྟོ་འཕྱེ་ཆེན་པོ།
  • mahoraga

A class of serpent-like beings.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­22

Links to further resources:

  • 71 related glossary entries
g.­71

Mango Caves

  • a mra’i phug
  • ཨ་མྲའི་ཕུག
  • —

A set of caves in the Gloomy Forest.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­16
g.­72

Mango tree

  • shing a mra
  • ཤིང་ཨ་མྲ།
  • āmra

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­16
  • 1.­26
g.­73

Many Sons

  • bu mangs
  • བུ་མངས།
  • —

One of the eight great yakṣīs.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­19
  • g.­33
g.­74

Middle Country

  • yul dbus
  • ཡུལ་དབུས།
  • Madhyadeśa

The central region of ancient India. Although the precise boundaries of the region are variously defined, a common description (found, for instance, in the Baudhāyana­sūtra), describes the region as bordered by the Himālayas to the north, the Vindhya mountains to the south, Vinaśana to the west, and Prayāga to the east.

24 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­2
  • 1.­3
  • 1.­4
  • 1.­10
  • g.­9
  • g.­17
  • g.­18
  • g.­30
  • g.­37
  • g.­39
  • g.­76
  • g.­77
  • g.­78
  • g.­79
  • g.­80
  • g.­81
  • g.­82
  • g.­87
  • g.­88
  • g.­90
  • g.­94
  • g.­105
  • g.­123
  • g.­131

Links to further resources:

  • 3 related glossary entries
g.­75

Monastery

  • gtsug lag khang
  • གཙུག་ལག་ཁང་།
  • vihāra

A dwelling place of monks.

7 passages contain this term:

  • i.­1
  • i.­6
  • 1.­23
  • 1.­28
  • n.­2
  • g.­56
  • g.­127

Links to further resources:

  • 7 related glossary entries
g.­76

Mount Bhasabha

  • bha sa bha sa’i ri
  • བྷ་ས་བྷ་སའི་རི།
  • —

A mountain on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­12
g.­77

Mount Conch Spire

  • ri dung gi lte ba
  • རི་དུང་གི་ལྟེ་བ།
  • —

A mountain on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­10
g.­78

Mount Kauśika

  • kau shi ka’i ri
  • ཀཽ་ཤི་ཀའི་རི།
  • —

A mountain on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Krakucchanda.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­13
g.­79

Mount Leafy Green

  • kha dog ljang lo ri
  • ཁ་དོག་ལྗང་ལོ་རི།
  • —

A mountain on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Kanakamuni.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­14
g.­80

Mount Moon

  • zla ba’i ri
  • ཟླ་བའི་རི།
  • —

A mountain on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Kāśyapa.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­15

Links to further resources:

  • 1 related glossary entry
g.­81

Mount Rohita

  • ro hi tI’i ri
  • རོ་ཧི་ཏཱིའི་རི།
  • —

A mountain on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­11
g.­82

Mount Uśīra

  • u shi’i ri
  • ཨུ་ཤིའི་རི།
  • Uśīragiri

A mountain at the northern tip of the Middle Country, located in modern-day Punjab.

6 passages contain this term:

  • i.­4
  • i.­5
  • 1.­16
  • c.­1
  • n.­2
  • n.­3

Links to further resources:

  • 1 related glossary entry
g.­83

Nanda

  • dga’ bo
  • དགའ་བོ།
  • Nanda

Pradarśa’s brother.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­1
  • n.­13
g.­84

Nearby Nāga

  • nye ba’i klu
  • ཉེ་བའི་ཀླུ།
  • —

One of the eight great nāgas.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­20
  • g.­32
g.­85

Oḍasuta

  • o Da su ta
  • ཨོ་ཌ་སུ་ཏ།
  • Oḍasuta

One of the eight great nāgas.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­20
  • g.­32
g.­86

Parrot tree

  • shing shir sha
  • ཤིང་ཤིར་ཤ།
  • śirīṣa

Equivalent to Albizia lebbeck according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­11

Links to further resources:

  • 4 related glossary entries
g.­87

Parrot Tree Caves

  • shing shir sha’i phug
  • ཤིང་ཤིར་ཤའི་ཕུག
  • —

Caves on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­11
g.­88

Pāṭalī Caves

  • pa ti li’i phug
  • པ་ཏི་ལིའི་ཕུག
  • —

Caves on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­10
g.­89

Pipal tree

  • shing a shwad tha
  • a shwad tha
  • ཤིང་ཨ་ཤྭད་ཐ།
  • ཨ་ཤྭད་ཐ།
  • aśvattha

Ficus religiosa according to the Pandanus Database of Plants.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­12
  • 1.­26

Links to further resources:

  • 2 related glossary entries
g.­90

Pipal Tree Caves

  • a shwad tha’i phug
  • ཨ་ཤྭད་ཐའི་ཕུག
  • —

Caves on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­12
g.­91

Pradarśa

  • rab mthong
  • རབ་མཐོང་།
  • Pradarśa

The eminent monk who brought the Buddhist community to the Gloomy Forest.

28 passages contain this term:

  • s.­1
  • i.­1
  • i.­4
  • 1.­1
  • 1.­4
  • 1.­5
  • 1.­6
  • 1.­7
  • 1.­8
  • 1.­9
  • 1.­10
  • 1.­11
  • 1.­12
  • 1.­13
  • 1.­14
  • 1.­15
  • 1.­16
  • 1.­22
  • 1.­24
  • 1.­25
  • 1.­27
  • 1.­29
  • n.­12
  • n.­13
  • n.­21
  • n.­22
  • g.­58
  • g.­83
g.­92

Reliquary

  • mchod rten
  • མཆོད་རྟེན།
  • stūpa
  • caitya

A structure for worship in which relics of a buddha are stored.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­23
  • 1.­28

Links to further resources:

  • 49 related glossary entries
g.­93

Rock

  • brag
  • བྲག
  • —

The name of a nāga lady from a previous eon.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­12
g.­94

Rock Forest

  • brag gi nags
  • བྲག་གི་ནགས།
  • —

A forest on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­12
g.­95

Sahā world

  • mi mjed
  • མི་མཇེད།
  • Sahā

The name of the world system in which we live.

3 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­9
  • 1.­23
  • g.­11

Links to further resources:

  • 57 related glossary entries
g.­96

Śakra

  • brgya byin
  • བརྒྱ་བྱིན།
  • Śakra

An alternative name for Indra, lord of the gods, who, according to Buddhist cosmology, resides in the Heaven of the Thirty-Three.

3 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­9
  • 1.­17
  • 1.­23

Links to further resources:

  • 107 related glossary entries
g.­97

Scent

  • dri ma
  • དྲི་མ།
  • —

One of the eight great nāgas.

3 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­20
  • 1.­28
  • g.­32
g.­98

Śeḍoka

  • she Do ka
  • ཤེ་ཌོ་ཀ
  • Śeḍoka

A monk of a previous buddha. If the Tibetan transliteration is correct, this name is probably not of Sanskrit origin.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­15
g.­99

Seer

  • mthong mo
  • མཐོང་མོ།
  • —

One of the eight nāga ladies.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­21
  • g.­34
g.­100

Shining

  • gsal ba
  • གསལ་བ།
  • —

Name of a monk from a previous eon.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­10
g.­101

Shining Forth Dharma

  • chos gsal
  • ཆོས་གསལ།
  • —

A monk of a previous buddha.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­12
g.­102

Śikhin

  • gtsug tor can
  • གཙུག་ཏོར་ཅན།
  • Śikhin

A buddha from a previous eon.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­11

Links to further resources:

  • 18 related glossary entries
g.­103

Siṅgala

  • sing ga la
  • སིང་ག་ལ།
  • Siṅgala

One of the eight yakṣa generals.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­18
  • g.­35
g.­104

Six forms of superknowledge

  • mngon par shes pa drug
  • མངོན་པར་ཤེས་པ་དྲུག
  • ṣaḍabhijñā

The divine eye (Skt. divyacakṣus), divine ear (Skt. divyaśrotra), recollection of previous births (Skt. pūrva­nivāsānu­smṛti), knowledge of other minds (Skt. paracittajñāna), knowledge of the destruction of the defiled (Skt. āsrava­kṣayajñāna), and [knowledge of] superpowers (Skt. ṛddhi).

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­10
  • g.­42

Links to further resources:

  • 16 related glossary entries
g.­105

Six great cities

  • grong khyer chen po drug
  • གྲོང་ཁྱེར་ཆེན་པོ་དྲུག
  • Ṣaṇmahānagara

The six great cities of the Middle Country are frequently mentioned in Buddhist literature. The Mahā­parinirvāṇa­sūtra lists them as Śrāvastī, Sāketa, Campā, Vārāṇasī, Vaiśālī, and Rājagṛha.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­3
g.­106

Six sources of knowledge

  • tshad ma drug
  • ཚད་མ་དྲུག
  • ṣaṭpramāṇa

This likely refers to perception (Skt. pratyakṣa), inference (Skt. anumāna), comparison (Skt. upamāna), testimony (Skt. śabda), nonperception (Skt. anupalabdhi), and inference from circumstances (Skt. arthāpatti).

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­3
g.­107

Sky Dweller

  • bar snang ma
  • བར་སྣང་མ།
  • —

One of the eight great yakṣīs.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­19
  • g.­33
g.­108

Small Club Holder

  • mdung thung ’dzin
  • མདུང་ཐུང་འཛིན།
  • —

One of the eight great yakṣīs.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­19
  • g.­33
g.­109

Solitary buddha

  • rang sangs rgyas
  • རང་སངས་རྒྱས།
  • pratyekabuddha

“Solitary buddha,” so called because they attain nirvāṇa on their own

7 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­10
  • 1.­11
  • 1.­12
  • 1.­14
  • 1.­15
  • 1.­22
  • n.­20

Links to further resources:

  • 79 related glossary entries
g.­110

Speech Strewing

  • lab ’thor ma
  • ལབ་འཐོར་མ།
  • —

One of the eight nāga ladies.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­21
  • g.­34
g.­111

Śrāvastī

  • mnyan du yod pa
  • mnyan yod
  • མཉན་དུ་ཡོད་པ།
  • མཉན་ཡོད།
  • Śrāvastī

The capital of the ancient Indian kingdom of Kośala during the sixth–fifth centuries ʙᴄᴇ ruled by one of the Buddha’s royal patrons, King Prasenajit. It was the setting for many sūtras as the Buddha spent many rains retreats outside the city, in Prince Jeta’s Grove. It has been identified with the present-day Sahet Mahet in Uttar Pradesh on the banks of the river Rapti.

5 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­1
  • 1.­6
  • g.­1
  • g.­56
  • g.­105

Links to further resources:

  • 56 related glossary entries
g.­112

Staircase to a Vase

  • bum pa’i bang rim
  • བུམ་པའི་བང་རིམ།
  • —

One of the eight great nāgas.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­20
  • g.­32
g.­113

Staircase to Heaven

  • lha’i bang rim
  • ལྷའི་བང་རིམ།
  • —

One of the eight great nāgas.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­20
  • g.­32
g.­114

Successful

  • don grub
  • དོན་གྲུབ།
  • —

One of the eight yakṣa generals.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­18
  • g.­35
g.­115

Summer rains retreat

  • dbyar gyi gnas pa
  • དབྱར་གྱི་གནས་པ།
  • varśā

A three-month period during the monsoon season during which monks remain in a single abode.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­22
g.­116

Tawny

  • ser skya
  • སེར་སྐྱ།
  • —

One of the eight great nāgas.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­20
  • g.­32

Links to further resources:

  • 2 related glossary entries
g.­117

Terrible

  • drag mo
  • དྲག་མོ།
  • —

One of the eight great yakṣīs.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­19
  • g.­33
g.­118

Three myrobalans

  • ’bras bu gsum gyi shing
  • འབྲས་བུ་གསུམ་གྱི་ཤིང་།
  • triphalaka

The three myrobalan plants: chebulic myrobalan (Skt. harītakī), beleric myrobalan (Skt. vibhītaka), and emblic myrobalan (Skt. āmalakī).

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­26
g.­119

Tough Man

  • rtsub po
  • རྩུབ་པོ།
  • —

A king of the Trigarta Jālandhara region.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­24
  • 1.­25
g.­120

Trigarta

  • ngam grog gsum po
  • ངམ་གྲོག་གསུམ་པོ།
  • Trigarta

The name of a country once located in the Punjab region, frequently mentioned in epic and purāṇic literature.

5 passages contain this term:

  • i.­4
  • 1.­1
  • n.­2
  • g.­13
  • g.­119
g.­121

Trumpet flower tree

  • pa ti li
  • pa ti’i shing
  • པ་ཏི་ལི།
  • པ་ཏིའི་ཤིང་།
  • pāṭala

Stereospermum colais according to the Pandanus Database of Plants. This appears to be the best option for what the Tibetan reads; however, the readings pa ti li and pa ti’i shing both appear corrupt.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­10
  • 1.­26

Links to further resources:

  • 4 related glossary entries
g.­122

Unclothed

  • gos med
  • གོས་མེད།
  • —

Name of a nāga lady.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­11
g.­123

Unclothed Forest

  • gos med kyi nags
  • གོས་མེད་ཀྱི་ནགས།
  • —

A forest on the northern border of the Middle Country in a past eon.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­11
g.­124

Universal Army

  • sna tshogs sde
  • སྣ་ཚོགས་སྡེ།
  • —

One of the eight nāga ladies.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­21
  • g.­34
g.­125

Uplifted by Dharma

  • chos ’phags
  • ཆོས་འཕགས།
  • Dharmodgata

A monk of a previous buddha.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­14
g.­126

Uplifted by Dharma

  • chos ’phags
  • ཆོས་འཕགས།
  • —

One of the eight yakṣa generals.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­18
  • g.­35
g.­127

Vajra Monastery

  • rdo rje’i gtsug lag khang
  • རྡོ་རྗེའི་གཙུག་ལག་ཁང་།
  • —

The name of a monastery

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­23
g.­128

Vetiver grass

  • u shi sha
  • ཨུ་ཤི་ཤ།
  • uśīra

Vetiveria zizanioides according to the Pandanus Database of Plants. The Tibetan rendering u shi sha is almost certain a corruption for uśīka.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­16

Links to further resources:

  • 2 related glossary entries
g.­129

Victorious

  • rgyal ba
  • རྒྱལ་བ།
  • —

A nāga lady from a former time.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­15
g.­130

Victorious

  • gzhan las rgyal
  • གཞན་ལས་རྒྱལ།
  • —

One of the eight yakṣa generals.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­18
  • g.­35
g.­131

Victorious Forest

  • rgyal ba’i nags
  • རྒྱལ་བའི་ནགས།
  • —

A forest on the northern border of the Middle Country earlier in the current eon, during the time of the Buddha Kāśyapa.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­15
g.­132

Vipaśyin

  • rnam par gzigs
  • རྣམ་པར་གཟིགས།
  • Vipaśyin

A buddha in a previous eon.

3 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­10
  • 1.­28
  • g.­61

Links to further resources:

  • 21 related glossary entries
g.­133

Viśvabhū

  • thams cad skyob
  • ཐམས་ཅད་སྐྱོབ།
  • Viśvabhū

A buddha in a previous eon.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­12

Links to further resources:

  • 14 related glossary entries
g.­134

Watery

  • chu ldan
  • ཆུ་ལྡན།
  • —

One of the eight great nāgas.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­20
  • g.­32
g.­135

Worthy one

  • dgra bcom pa
  • དགྲ་བཅོམ་པ།
  • arhat

A person who has accomplished the final fruition of the path of the hearers and is liberated from saṃsāra.

13 passages contain this term:

  • i.­5
  • i.­6
  • 1.­7
  • 1.­10
  • 1.­11
  • 1.­12
  • 1.­13
  • 1.­14
  • 1.­15
  • 1.­22
  • 1.­24
  • 1.­25
  • n.­13

Links to further resources:

  • 96 related glossary entries
g.­136

Wrathful

  • drag shul
  • དྲག་ཤུལ།
  • —

One of the eight great nāgas.

2 passages contain this term:

  • 1.­20
  • g.­32
g.­137

Yakṣa general

  • gnod sbyin gyi sde dpon chen po
  • གནོད་སྦྱིན་གྱི་སྡེ་དཔོན་ཆེན་པོ།
  • yakṣasenāpati

Leaders of armies of yakṣas.

1 passage contains this term:

  • 1.­9
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